Chalcolithic Cyprus

Chalcolithic Cyprus

For much of its prehistory, Cyprus presents a paradox. Its material culture is often distinct from that of its neighbours in the Aegean and the Near East, suggesting a degree of insularity [1, p. 89]. Yet, its geographical position at a crossroads of the eastern Mediterranean makes complete isolation improbable [2, p. 13]. The Chalcolithic period, lasting from approximately 3900 to 2500 BCE, is central to understanding this dynamic [3, p. 12]. Once viewed as a brief, transitional phase, modern research has established it as a long and significant era in its own right, marked by profound internal developments in settlement, technology, and social organisation [4, p. 4; 5, p. 4]. It was during these centuries that Cypriot society moved from small, agrarian villages toward more complex forms of social ranking, developed a unique and prolific artistic tradition, and took its first tentative steps in metallurgy.

This article examines the chronological development of the Chalcolithic period in Cyprus. By dividing the era into its Early, Middle, and Late phases, it is possible to trace a trajectory of change across the island. We will explore the evidence for settlement patterns and subsistence strategies, key developments in material culture such as pottery and figurines, the nascent stages of copper working, and the emergence of social complexity. This approach shows how a distinct Cypriot culture evolved before a final, transformative phase set the stage for the island’s full integration into the Bronze Age world [4, p. 16].

The Early Chalcolithic (c. 3900–3400 BCE): New Settlements and Local Traditions

The beginning of the Chalcolithic is marked by a rapid transition from the preceding Ceramic Neolithic period, including a shift in settlement patterns [6, p. 45; 7, p. 45]. Notably, this phase saw the first known settlement of the southwestern part of the island [8, p. 7]. Archaeological evidence from sites such as Kissonerga-Mylouthkia and Kalavasos-Ayious suggests communities lived in ephemeral, timber-framed circular structures, or "shelters," often accompanied by pits, postholes, and subterranean hollows [9, p. 5; 10, p. 64; 11, p. 62]. The interiors of these early structures typically lack the internal installations found in later buildings, which suggests that many household activities, like food processing, were conducted outside [10, p. 64; 11, p. 64]. Some researchers have proposed that these dwellings may have been only seasonally occupied [10, p. 64; 11, p. 64].

At Kissonerga-Mosphilia, evidence from this period includes large, bell-shaped pits located near the structures, interpreted as communal facilities for grain storage [10, p. 64; 11, p. 64]. The estimated capacity of these pits, combined with the quantity of recovered artifacts, points to a substantial settlement, even if its architecture was not built for permanence [10, p. 64; 11, p. 64]. The society of this period appears to have been largely egalitarian, with communities organised as autonomous villages [12, p. 37; 13, p. 17].

The subsistence economy was based on a mixed agro-pastoralist strategy that was well-suited to the island environment [12, p. 37]. This involved the cultivation of cereals like emmer and einkorn wheat and barley, as well as pulses such as lentils [14, p. 129; 12, p. 20]. However, unlike on the mainland, Cypriot communities maintained a heavy reliance on hunting, particularly of the introduced fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) [15, p. 116]. Faunal assemblages from Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites show that deer, along with pigs, were a primary source of meat, with domesticated caprines (sheep and goats) playing a smaller role [16, p. 63; 15, p. 116]. This prolonged dependence on a mixed strategy of cultivation and hunting was a matter of cultural choice and an effective adaptation to local conditions, rather than a sign of isolation or lack of knowledge of mainland agricultural systems [17, p. 25].

The material culture of the Early Chalcolithic provides a baseline for later developments. The most characteristic pottery is Red-on-White ware (RW), which features red or brown painted patterns on a buff or off-white slip [18, p. 82; 19, p. 82]. In this early phase, the range of painted motifs was limited [20, p. 151]. The stone tool industry continued Neolithic traditions, with an assemblage of chipped stone tools and a wide array of ground stone implements such as axes, adzes, grinders, and pestles made from locally available igneous rock like diabase and basalt [21, p. 75; 22, p. 155; 23, p. 19].

The Middle Chalcolithic (c. 3400–2800 BCE): Artistic Proliferation and Social Complexity

The Middle Chalcolithic was a period of significant growth in population and settlement numbers [8, p. 7; 24, p. 14]. At sites like Lemba-Lakkous and Kissonerga-Mosphilia in the Paphos district, the ephemeral shelters of the previous phase were replaced by more substantial, circular buildings with stone foundations [16, p. 21; 10, p. 638; 11, p. 638]. This period also witnessed a remarkable increase in the production and variety of anthropomorphic representations, which became a prominent feature of the archaeological record [25, p. 7; 26, p. 9].

This artistic output is most evident in two media: pottery and figurines. The painted decoration on Red-on-White ware developed into a vibrant and complex style, with an array of linear, geometric, and curvilinear designs that mark the high point of the Chalcolithic painted tradition [20, p. 151; 27, p. 2]. Potters also produced anthropomorphic vessels [25, p. 7]. Concurrently, there was a dramatic increase in figurine production [25, p. 7]. These were made from stone and clay, but the most distinctive are the cruciform pendants and figurines carved from picrolite, a soft, green-hued stone found in riverbeds flowing from the Troodos Mountains [26, p. 9; 8, p. 7]. These highly stylized figures, with their horizontal arms and long necks, have become emblematic of prehistoric Cyprus [11, p. 13]. While their exact meaning remains a subject of interpretation, they are often found in mortuary contexts, particularly with children, and likely functioned within a system of ritual and belief related to birth and social reproduction [28, p. 20; 25, p. 8]. The production and exchange of these picrolite objects may have also been linked to the emergence of social prestige [25, p. 8; 26, p. 9].

The Middle Chalcolithic provides the first clear evidence for the emergence of social ranking and complexity on the island [29, p. 13; 12, p. 37; 24, p. 14]. This is visible in several aspects of the archaeological record. At Kissonerga-Mosphilia, some buildings were significantly larger than others and appear to have had special functions [12, p. 36]. One notable example is the "Pithos House" (Structure 3), a circular building that contained 58 large storage jars, suggesting control over agricultural surplus beyond the level of a single household [30, p. 73]. The site also includes a ceremonial area with a model of a circular building containing numerous figurines, some depicted on birthing stools, which points to ritual activities that transcended the domestic sphere [4, p. 10; 5, p. 10].

Changes in mortuary practices also suggest developing social differentiation. While simple pit graves within settlements continued, especially for children and infants, extramural cemeteries with rock-cut shaft tombs appeared, such as those at Souskiou-Vathyrkakas [31, p. 37; 10, p. 76; 11, p. 76]. These cemeteries, sometimes containing multiple burials and prestige goods like picrolite figurines, indicate more elaborate funerary rites and potentially the marking of group identity or status [28, p. 2]. This developing social complexity, however, does not seem to have led to a stable, hereditary hierarchy. Instead, it has been described as an episodic or cyclical process, with periods of intensified inequality followed by a return to simpler structures [32, p. 188]. Inequality appears to have been ephemeral and perhaps negotiated among households rather than being institutionalized [24, p. 14].

The Late Chalcolithic (c. 2800–2500 BCE): A Society in Transition

The final phase of the Chalcolithic was a period of profound change, creating the conditions for the emergence of the Bronze Age [4, p. 16; 5, p. 16]. While there was continuity in some areas, such as the continued use of circular buildings at sites like Lemba and Kissonerga, many other aspects of society were transformed [5, p. 16].

A significant shift occurred in ceramic production. The ornate Red-on-White painted style almost completely disappeared and was replaced by monochrome pottery, most notably Red and Black Stroke Burnished ware (RB/B) [20, p. 151; 33, p. 18]. This change was not merely stylistic; it represented a technological advance. Potters began to use non-calcareous clays, which were better levigated, resulting in harder fabrics and thinner vessel walls [18, p. 82; 19, p. 82]. They also demonstrated greater control over firing and employed new surface treatments like relief knobs, deliberate mottling, and pattern burnishing [20, p. 151; 18, p. 82]. New vessel shapes, such as bowls with tab handles and jars with long spouts, were introduced [18, p. 82; 19, p. 82]. This ceramic tradition has parallels in southwestern Anatolia, suggesting some degree of external influence or interaction, though the limited nature of this contact suggests it was a matter of Cypriot choice and reception rather than wholesale adoption [18, p. 82; 34, p. 8].

In contrast to the flourishing artistic traditions of the Middle Chalcolithic, the production of anthropomorphic figurines went into a terminal decline during this period [35, p. 102]. The subsistence economy also evolved, with zooarchaeological evidence indicating a decrease in the economic importance of fallow deer hunting [16, p. 75; 33, p. 378]. This was accompanied by an increase in the relative importance of pig herding and a greater emphasis on caprine husbandry [16, p. 75; 15, p. 116].

Perhaps the most significant development of the Late Chalcolithic was the beginning of metallurgy. Cyprus was a relative latecomer to copper working; in neighboring Anatolia, the earliest metal objects date to the 9th millennium BCE [36, p. 280; 37, p. 20]. The first metal artifacts on Cyprus appear around 3500 BCE, and the total number of known objects from the entire Chalcolithic period is less than twenty [38, p. 77]. The repertoire is limited to small items like hooks, awls, pins, and spiral ornaments [38, p. 77; 39, p. 5]. These early objects were likely made of native copper that was worked mechanically by hammering, a technology not dissimilar to that used for stone tool production [38, p. 77; 40, p. 68].

The evidence for extractive metallurgy—the smelting of metal from ores—is limited and debated. Fragments of copper ore and two possible crucibles from Late Chalcolithic contexts at Kissonerga-Mosphilia suggest that indigenous metalworking from local ores was underway by the mid-3rd millennium BCE [41, p. 14; 42, p. 10]. However, lead isotope analysis performed on a few Chalcolithic artifacts has suggested an origin from non-Cypriot ores, possibly from Anatolia [43, p. 13]. This has led to a debate over whether the earliest copper on the island was imported or locally produced [43, p. 13]. What is clear is that metallurgy in Chalcolithic Cyprus was a small-scale activity, lacking the technical sophistication and economic importance it would later acquire [16, p. 46]. The substantial increase in the quantity and variety of copper objects, and the introduction of casting in moulds, would not occur until the subsequent Philia phase [42, p. 10].

The End of an Era: The Philia Facies and the Bronze Age Transition

The Chalcolithic period culminates in what is known as the Philia facies (c. 2500–2300 BCE), a cultural assemblage that marks the transition to the Early Bronze Age [44, p. 11]. The changes associated with this phase were so comprehensive that they affected nearly every aspect of life [5, p. 16]. Circular architecture was replaced by multi-roomed, rectilinear structures [17, p. 11; 45, p. 143]. New settlement patterns emerged, with a shift towards the north and central parts of the island, closer to the copper resources of the Troodos foothills [45, p. 143].

Mortuary practices were also transformed with the widespread appearance of extramural cemeteries containing rock-cut chamber tombs used for multiple burials [31, p. 39; 46, p. 3]. The material culture was almost entirely new, with the monochrome wares of the Late Chalcolithic being succeeded by Red Polished pottery, and a dramatic increase in the production of copper tools and weapons [5, p. 16; 29, p. 2]. The introduction of cattle and the plough also points to significant changes in agricultural practices [33, p. 480; 45, p. 143].

The source of these profound changes has been the subject of extensive debate, with many scholars arguing for the arrival of migrant groups from Anatolia who brought new technologies and cultural practices with them [1, p. 147; 45, p. 143]. Regardless of the specific mechanism of change, the Philia facies represents a clear break with many of the long-standing traditions of the Chalcolithic. The appearance of this new cultural package coincides with a significant increase in the exploitation of the island’s copper ores, which would come to define Cyprus throughout the Bronze Age [47, p. 7; 40, p. 68].

Conclusion

The Chalcolithic period of Cyprus was not merely a prelude to the Bronze Age but a dynamic era of indigenous social and technological evolution spanning nearly 1,500 years. It began with small, egalitarian farming communities that practiced a unique mixed subsistence strategy, combining agriculture with a heavy reliance on managed deer herds. Over time, particularly during the Middle Chalcolithic, these communities grew in size and complexity, developing distinctive artistic traditions and early forms of social ranking. While this complexity appears to have been cyclical rather than consolidating into permanent hierarchies, it demonstrates a society experimenting with new forms of social and ritual organisation.

The Late Chalcolithic was a period of fundamental reorganisation. The vibrant painted pottery and figurine traditions declined, while new ceramic technologies and subsistence strategies took hold. Crucially, it was during this time that Cypriots began to work with copper. Though limited in scale and technological sophistication, this nascent industry established a familiarity with the island's most valuable resource. This long period of internal development created a society with its own distinct character, one that was eventually transformed by new influences at the dawn of the Bronze Age. The transition marked by the Philia facies raises crucial, and as yet unanswered, questions about the nature of the interaction between the indigenous Chalcolithic population and newcomers. Understanding this complex relationship, and determining the true scale and organisation of the earliest Cypriot metallurgy, remain key objectives for future research into this formative period of the island’s history.

References

  1. Knapp, A. B. (2008). *Prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus: Identity, insularity, and connectivity.* Oxford University Press.
  2. Jasink, A. M., & Bombardieri, L. (Eds.). (2010). *Researches in Cypriote history and archaeology*. Firenze University Press.
  3. Halbertsma, R. B., & Pilides, D. (Eds.). (2019). *Cyprus: A dynamic island*. Sidestone Press.
  4. J. Paul Getty Museum. (1990). *Cyprus before the Bronze Age: Art of the Chalcolithic Period*. J. Paul Getty Museum.
  5. J. Paul Getty Museum. (1990). *Cyprus before the Bronze Age: Art of the Chalcolithic period*. J. Paul Getty Museum.
  6. Osterholtz, A. J. (2015). *Bodies in motion: A bioarchaeological analysis of migration and identity in Bronze Age Cyprus (2400-1100 BC)* [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nevada, Las Vegas].
  7. Osterholtz, A. J. (2015). Bodies in motion: A bioarchaeological analysis of migration and identity in Bronze Age Cyprus (2400-1100 BC) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nevada, Las Vegas].
  8. Fisher, K. D. (2018). Cyprus, Archaeology of. In C. Smith (Ed.), *Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology*. Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_939-2
  9. Clarke, J. (2007). Site Diversity in Cyprus in the Late 5th Millennium cal. BC: Evidence from Kalavasos Kokkinoyia. LEVANT, 39, 13–26.
  10. Winkelmann, C. (2020). The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Figurines of Cyprus (Studien zur Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, Bd. 2). Zaphon.
  11. Winkelmann, C. (2020). The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Figurines of Cyprus. Zaphon.
  12. Knapp, A. B., Held, S. O., & Manning, S. W. (1994). The prehistory of Cyprus: Problems and prospects. Journal of World Prehistory, 8(4), 377–507.
  13. Amadio, M. (2023). *Building in prehistoric Cyprus: Tracing transformations in the built and social environment of early Cypriot communities*. Edizioni Ca’ Foscari. https://doi.org/10.30687/978-88-6969-685-5
  14. Andreou, G.-M. (2014). *Traversing Space: Landscape and Identity in Bronze Age Cyprus* [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Edinburgh].
  15. Goude, G., Clarke, J., Webb, J. M., Frankel, D., Georgiou, G., Herrscher, E., & Lorentz, K. O. (2018). Exploring the potential of human bone and teeth collagen from Prehistoric Cyprus for isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 22, 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.09.018
  16. Karageorghis, V., & True, M. (Eds.). (1991). *Chalcolithic Cyprus*. J. Paul Getty Museum.
  17. Lucas, L., & Fuller, D. Q. (2020). Against the grain: Long‑term patterns in agricultural production in prehistoric Cyprus. Journal of World Prehistory. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-020-09140-6
  18. Hadjigavriel, M. (2020). A Tale of Red and Black: Reconstructing Transfer of Knowledge in Late Chalcolithic Cyprus. Archaeological Review from Cambridge, 35(2), 81.
  19. Hadjigavriel, M. (2020). A tale of red and black: Reconstructing transfer of knowledge in Late Chalcolithic Cyprus. *Archaeological Review from Cambridge*, *35*(2), 81–86.
  20. Bolger, D. (n.d.). Cultural interaction in 3rd millennium BC Cyprus: evidence of ceramics. In E. Peltenburg (Ed.), *East Mediterranean interactions* (pp. 163-170).
  21. Peltenburg, E. (Ed.). (2003). The colonisation and settlement of Cyprus: Investigations at Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, 1976-1996. Paul Åströms Förlag (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. LXX:4).
  22. Peltenburg, E., & Wasse, A. (Eds.). (2004). *Neolithic Revolution: New perspectives on Southwest Asia in light of recent discoveries on Cyprus*. Oxbow Books.
  23. Adovasio, J. M., Fry, G. F., Gunn, J. D., & Maslowski, R. F. (1975). Prehistoric and historic settlement patterns of Western Cyprus with a discussion of Cypriote Neolithic stone tool technology. World Archaeology, 6(3), 339-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.1975.9979614
  24. Bürge, T., & Recht, L. (Eds.). (2024). T. Bürge & L. Recht (Eds.), *Dynamics and developments of social structures and networks in prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus*. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003320203
  25. Mina, M. (n.d.). Island histories and gender stories: A comparative view through Neolithic and Early Bronze Age anthropomorphic figurines from Crete and Cyprus. In Finds and Results from the Swedish Cyprus Expedition 1927–1931: A Gender Perspective (pp. 171-?). Medelhavsmuseet.
  26. Knapp, A. B., & Meskell, L. (1997). Bodies of Evidence on Prehistoric Cyprus. *Cambridge Archaeological Journal*, *7*(2), 183-204.
  27. Falconer, S. E., Ridder, E., Pilaar Birch, S. E., & Fall, P. L. (2023). Prehistoric Bronze Age radiocarbon chronology at Politiko-Troullia, Cyprus. *Radiocarbon, 00*(00), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2022.99
  28. Lesure, R. G. (2017). Representation as visual exegesis: The stone figurines of Chalcolithic Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology, 30(1), 33-58. https://doi.org/10.1558/jmea.32913
  29. Bolger, D. (2013). A Matter of Choice: Cypriot Interactions with the Levantine Mainland During the Late 4th–3rd Millennium BC. *Levant, 45*(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1179/0075891413Z.00000000014
  30. Sandei, I. (2024). The Philia facies and the Interaction Between Cyprus and Cilicia. The Transformations in the Architectural Structures. KASKAL. Rivista di storia, ambienti e culture del Vicino Oriente Antico, 1, 69-92. https://doi.org/10.30687/KASKAL/5235-1939/2024/01/004
  31. Monahan, E. M. (2010). *Dwelling with the dead: Mortuary landscapes and the production of community during the prehistoric Bronze Age on Cyprus* (Master's thesis, Cornell University).
  32. Bolger, D., & Serwint, N. (Eds.). (2002). *Engendering Aphrodite: Women and society in ancient Cyprus*. American Schools of Oriental Research.
  33. Swiny, S., Rapp, G. R., & Herscher, E. (Eds.). (2003). *Sotira Kaminoudhia: An early Bronze Age site in Cyprus*. American Schools of Oriental Research.
  34. Clarke, J. (2010). Contextualising Neolithic Cyprus: Preliminary investigations into connections between Cyprus and the Near East in the later Neolithic. In D. Bolger & L. C. Maguire (Eds.), *Development of pre-State Communities in the Ancient Near East* (pp. 197–206). Oxbow Books.
  35. Knox, D.-K. (2012). *Making sense of figurines in Bronze Age Cyprus: A comprehensive analysis of Cypriot ceramic figurative material from EC I – LC IIIA (c.2300BC – c.1100BC)* [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Manchester].
  36. Peltenburg, E., Bolger, D., & Crewe, L. (Eds.). (2019). Figurine makers of prehistoric Cyprus: Settlement and cemeteries at Souskiou. Oxbow Books.
  37. Peltenburg, E., Bolger, D., & Crewe, L. (Eds.). (2019). Figurine makers of prehistoric Cyprus: Settlement and cemeteries at Souskiou. Oxford University Press.
  38. Pilides, D., & Papadimitriou, N. (Eds.). (2012). *Ancient Cyprus: Cultures in dialogue*. Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.
  39. Kouka, O. (2014). Cross-cultural links and elite-identities: the Eastern Aegean/Western Anatolia and Cyprus from the early Third Millennium through the early Second Millennium BC. In M. Korfmann, B. Horejs, S. Schierl, & K. Kotsakis (Eds.), Lux Orientis: Archaeologica et Orientalia: Festschrift für Harald Hauptmann zu seinem 65. Geburtstag (pp. 31–44). Harrassowitz Verlag.
  40. Graham, L. (2013). *The Necropolis of Kissonerga-Ammoudhia: Techniques of Ceramic Production in Early-Middle Bronze Age Western Cyprus* [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Edinburgh].
  41. Kassianidou, V., & Papasavvas, G. (Eds.). (2012). *Eastern Mediterranean metallurgy and metalwork in the Second Millennium BC*. Oxbow Books.
  42. Düring, B. S., Klinkenberg, V., Paraskeva, C., Kassianidou, V., Souter, E., Croft, P., & Charalambous, A. (2018). Metal artefacts in Chalcolithic Cyprus: New data from Western Cyprus. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 18(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1069514
  43. Peltenburg, E. (Ed.). (2013). *Cyprus* (Vol. 2, ARCANE: Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean). Brepols.
  44. Svensson, M. (2020). *Mortuary practices in LC Cyprus: A comparative study between tombs at Hala Sultan Tekke and other LC Bronze Age sites in Cyprus* [Master’s thesis, Lund University].
  45. Gagné, L. A. C. (2012). Middle Cypriot White Painted Ware: A study of pottery production and distribution in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus [Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto].
  46. Keswani, P. (2005). *Mortuary ritual and society in Bronze Age Cyprus*. Equinox Publishing.
  47. Harper, N. K., & Fox, S. C. (2008). Recent research in Cypriot bioarchaeology. Bioarchaeology of the Near East, 2, 1–38.