Jars (Amphora)

Containers of an Island Economy: The Jars and Amphoras of Ancient Cyprus

The cargo of a sunken ship, scattered across the seabed, offers a static image of a dynamic process: the movement of goods, ideas, and people across the ancient Mediterranean [1, p. 2]. Among the most durable evidence of this process are ceramic containers. On Cyprus, an island positioned at a maritime crossroads, large jars and amphoras were more than simple storage vessels; they were the primary instruments of an economy connected to the Aegean, the Levant, and Egypt for millennia [2, p. 305]. These containers, from massive, stationary pithoi to standardized transport amphoras, document shifts in production technology, the scope of trade networks, and the daily and ritual lives of the island's inhabitants. An examination of their development, from the Bronze Age emergence of specialized production to the regionalized industries of the Iron Age kingdoms, reveals how Cypriot society participated in and shaped the economic currents of the Eastern Mediterranean.

This article traces the history of these essential vessels. It begins by exploring the Bronze Age foundations of Cypriot ceramic production, focusing on the large-scale storage pithoi and the island’s critical engagement with the ubiquitous Levantine “Canaanite jar.” It then examines the transformation of production and trade in the Iron Age, which saw the rise of distinctly Cypriot transport amphoras and regional workshop traditions. Finally, it considers the varied functions these vessels served in funerary, domestic, and ritual contexts, and discusses the scientific methods that allow modern researchers to determine their origins and contents. Through this evidence, the jars of Cyprus appear not as passive containers, but as active components of a complex and resilient island economy.

Bronze Age Foundations: Pithoi, Production, and Imports

The story of large-scale ceramic containers in Cyprus begins with the pithos. The appearance of the first pithoi during the Chalcolithic period coincided with the construction of exceptional buildings, suggesting an early link between large-capacity storage and a sector of society with privileged access to labor and control over bulk commodities [3, p. 15]. By the Late Bronze Age (LBA), the pithos was a well-established vessel type, characterized by a very coarse fabric, thick walls, and heavy rims [4, p. 159]. Their considerable size and weight meant most were produced locally, likely by itinerant specialists who moved between communities [4, p. 159]. Archaeological surveys have identified pithos sherds made from buff fabrics with angular stone inclusions, though regional variations in the procurement and processing of raw materials are evident [5, p. 9].

These vessels were central to the agrarian economy. The variability in pithos size and form likely relates to the storage of different agricultural products [5, p. 9]. Wide-necked pithoi, from which contents could be easily scooped, were probably used for cereals and other solid foods, while tall, narrow-necked pithoi were better suited for liquids such as olive oil [5, p. 9]. In some contexts, they appear to have been used for dry storage, based on associated finds of charred grain [6, p. 176], while their placement in pits at other sites suggests liquid storage [6, p. 176]. The presence of "mega-pithoi," with wall thicknesses exceeding 4 cm, is associated with centralized storage facilities at primary administrative centers like Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, perhaps indicating their role in systems of surplus collection and redistribution [5, p. 9].

While essential for local storage, Cypriot pithoi also entered maritime exchange networks. Middle Bronze Age Plain White Handmade pithoi have been identified in Late Hyksos contexts at Tell el-Dab’a in Egypt and at Ugarit in Syria [7, p. 241]. Later, during the LBA, several Cypriot pithoi were found on the Uluburun shipwreck, one containing pomegranates and another a mixed cargo of smaller Cypriot vessels and tin ingots [7, p. 241]. Five pithoi, four of which were identified as Cypriot, were also recovered from the Point Iria shipwreck [7, p. 241]. These finds demonstrate that Cypriot pithoi were used to export the island's produce and also functioned as durable shipping containers for other goods [7, p. 241]. The circulation of these large vessels was not limited to eastward trade; fragments of a Late Minoan III pithos, produced in northern Crete, have been found at Pyla-Kokkinokremos, confirming exchange with the Aegean [8, p. 239].

The LBA also saw a significant technological shift with the introduction of the potter’s wheel around 1600 BCE [9, p. 30]. This innovation did not, however, lead to the immediate replacement of traditional methods. For centuries, handmade wares like the widely exported White Slip and Base Ring series continued to be produced alongside wheel-made vessels [10, p. Sec1; 11, p. 27]. This unusual coexistence suggests a complex industry where market demand and tradition encouraged the persistence of handmade techniques, even as some potters adopted new, faster methods for forming certain vessel types [10, p. Sec1].

The most significant imported container during this period was the "Canaanite jar," the standard storage and transport vessel of the Levant from the Middle Bronze Age into the Iron Age [2, p. 119; 12, p. 5]. Designed for maritime trade, these jars had an ovoid body, thin walls, and a narrow base, features that allowed for efficient stacking in warehouses and ships' holds [12, p. 5; 13, p. 12]. They are well-attested at LBA sites on Cyprus, particularly at coastal centers like Maa-Palaeokastro and Pyla-Kokkinokremos, signaling the island's deep integration into regional trade networks [2, p. 119; 14, p. 120]. Residue analyses and inscriptions show they transported commodities such as pistacia resin, honey, wine, and oil [12, p. 5].

The specific types of Canaanite jars found on Cyprus offer insight into the island's precise role in these networks. The angular-shouldered commercial jar (Pedrazzi Type 5-4), which was highly standardized and used for long-distance trade managed by palaces, is surprisingly scarce in Cyprus [2, p. 123]. Instead, the more common type is the "bellied" jar (Pedrazzi Type 4-2) of coastal Syrian origin [2, p. 123]. This pattern suggests that Cyprus was not merely a final destination for goods shipped in these containers but often functioned as a "crossing point," participating in a trade network with strong connections to the Syrian coast [2, p. 123]. Further evidence for these complex connections includes finds of four-handled slender jars of southern Levantine origin and Egyptian-style jars at sites like Maa and Pyla [2, p. 124]. The question of whether some Canaanite jars were produced locally has been a subject of debate. While stylistic imitations may exist, scientific analyses have so far not found a conclusive match with Cypriot clay sources, indicating that the overwhelming majority were imports [2, p. 126; 14, p. 127].

Iron Age Transformations: Regionalism and Cypriot Amphoras

The end of the LBA brought widespread disruption to the Eastern Mediterranean, but trade did not cease. Instead, exchange networks became more decentralized [15, p. 49; 16, p. 392]. In Cyprus, the Early Iron Age saw the development of new ceramic forms that incorporated both Aegean and Levantine influences [17, p. 5]. Key shapes in the Cypro-Geometric period (c. 1050–750 BCE) included the belly-handled amphora of Aegean inspiration and the barrel-shaped jug, a local transformation of an imported Levantine globular jug [17, p. 5].

A significant development during the Iron Age was the emergence of the first distinctly Cypriot Maritime Transport Containers (MTCs). While the LBA economy had relied on imported Canaanite jars, Cypriot workshops now began to produce their own specialized shipping amphoras [14, p. 422]. These vessels were low-cost, mass-produced containers manufactured specifically for the maritime transport of bulk organic goods, a tradition that was a particular feature of the ancient Mediterranean economy [14, p. 422]. The most characteristic type is the basket-handle amphora, which appears in funerary and settlement contexts [18, p. 8; 2, p. 314]. These were multi-purpose containers; post-firing inscriptions on some examples have been interpreted as signifying "olive oil" [2, p. 425]. Morphological variations over time, such as a shift from flat to conical bases and the development of more elongated bodies, may reflect adjustments to the needs of systematic shipping [2, p. 425].

Unlike the centralized industries of earlier periods, Iron Age pottery production was marked by strong regionalism. Distinct workshop traditions developed in the different city-kingdoms, each with characteristic shapes, fabrics, and decorative styles [2, p. 306]. For example, Amathus developed a local style early on, favoring the Bichrome technique and producing shapes like globular jugs that appear there earlier than elsewhere on the island [19, p. 15]. The workshops of Salamis became known for a popular pictorial style, featuring dense floral decoration or scenes arranged in panels or across a "free field," which became a trademark of its regional production during the Cypro-Archaic period [2, p. 342]. This pattern of localized production and consumption is also seen in the limited distribution of vessels in the "Amathus style" outside its home kingdom [2, p. 347].

The distribution of these Iron Age jars reveals the nature of contemporary trade networks. Cypriot amphoras and other decorated wares are found throughout the Levant [2, p. 305]. In Phoenicia, Cypriot decorated amphoras and kraters were frequently used as cinerary urns, influencing local vessel production [20, p. 134]. Underwater archaeology provides further evidence. Three Archaic shipwrecks discovered off the coast of Turkey carried mixed cargoes that included Cypriot vessels alongside East Greek amphoras [21, p. 191]. This suggests Cypriot produce was transported to Aegean or Anatolian ports, where it was then repackaged onto smaller vessels for redistribution in regional networks operating at small and middling scales of trade [21, p. 191].

Vessels in Society: Funerary, Domestic, and Ritual Uses

Beyond their economic role as containers for storage and trade, jars and amphoras were deeply integrated into the social and ritual fabric of ancient Cyprus. Their most frequent archaeological context is funerary. From the Bronze Age onwards, ceramic vessels were common burial goods, either as personal possessions of the deceased used during life or as gifts made specifically for the tomb [22, p. 162; 23, p. 16]. The excellent condition of many excavated jugs suggests they were primarily intended for mortuary use [24, p. 12].

The majority of grave goods were storage or serving vessels [25, p. 5]. Small, closed vessels like juglets were assumed to contain precious commodities such as perfumed oils for anointing the body [25, p. 5; 26, p. 36]. In LBA tombs, Cypriot Base Ring juglets are often found alongside Mycenaean stirrup jars and flasks, suggesting that scented oils from different regions were sought after by Cypriot elites [26, p. 38; 27, p. 323]. Larger jars and amphoras may have contained liquids and foodstuffs for the afterlife, though the contents of locally made pottery are harder to determine without scientific analysis [28, p. 67]. In some cases, large vessels played a more direct role in mortuary practice; during the Early Iron Age, large jars were used for infant burials at sites like Kition-Bamboula [29, p. 8].

In domestic contexts, pithoi were the primary vessels for household storage, as evidenced by their presence in settlement sites like Panayia Ematousa [30, p. 58]. Smaller two-handled jars and amphoras likely held foodstuffs for daily use and may have also been used for serving at meals [31, p. 82]. Certain vessels were clearly intended for ritual purposes. The Cypro-Geometric III Hubbard amphora, for instance, bears images consistent with ritual symbolism [32, p. 31]. Debris from feasting activities, found in some LBA tombs, includes storage and serving vessels left behind by the living, indicating that these jars were part of ceremonies conducted in honor of the dead [25, p. 5].

Scientific Approaches to Understanding Cypriot Jars

Modern archaeological inquiry relies on a suite of scientific techniques to move beyond stylistic typology and understand the production, provenance, and function of ancient pottery. For Cypriot jars, these methods have been essential in clarifying long-standing questions about trade and technology.

Provenance studies, which aim to identify a vessel's place of origin, are critical for reconstructing trade routes. Petrographic analysis examines the mineral and rock fragments within the clay under a microscope, matching the geological signature to specific regions [33, p. 20; 34, p. 138]. This method helped confirm, for instance, a Cypriot origin for four of the five pithoi on the Point Iria wreck [7, p. 241]. Chemical techniques like Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) determine the elemental composition of the clay, which can be compared against databases of known clay sources [35, p. 52; 36, p. 20]. NAA has been instrumental in demonstrating that most "Canaanite jars" found on Cyprus were imported from the Levant, not produced locally [2, p. 126]. However, these studies are not without challenges; the island's complex geology can make it difficult to pinpoint exact clay sources, and a lack of comprehensive chemical data for regions like Syria can limit the certainty of attributions [37, p. 165; 2, p. 126].

To determine what these jars contained, archaeologists use organic residue analysis. This method extracts and identifies microscopic traces of fats, oils, resins, and waxes preserved within the porous ceramic fabric [38, p. 10]. Analysis of Red Lustrous Wheelmade ware from Cyprus revealed residues of oil-based commodities, sometimes containing castor oil, as well as bitumen and beeswax, which may have been used as waterproofing agents or were part of medicinal treatments [39, p. 8]. This technique confirmed that Canaanite jars transported pistacia resin [12, p. 5] and that Minoan stirrup jars found at Enkomi held scented oils [26, p. 38].

Scientific analysis also provides insight into how these vessels were made. Techniques such as xeroradiography can reveal the internal structure of a pot, allowing researchers to distinguish between different forming techniques, such as fully wheel-thrown versus coil-built and wheel-shaped [40, p. 197; 41, p. 8]. This level of detail illuminates the technological choices and skills of ancient potters, showing, for example, the diverse and experimental ways in which the potter's wheel was selectively integrated into existing handmade traditions on Cyprus [42, p. 206]. These analytical approaches, when combined with traditional archaeological methods, provide a much clearer understanding of the life history of a Cypriot jar, from its creation in a workshop to its final use in trade, at home, or in a tomb.

Conclusion

The study of jars and amphoras from ancient Cyprus reveals an industry that was both responsive to external influences and rooted in durable local traditions. From the massive pithoi that anchored the Bronze Age agricultural economy to the regionally distinct transport amphoras of the Iron Age kingdoms, these vessels were fundamental to the island's economic life. The heavy reliance on imported Levantine Canaanite jars during the Late Bronze Age demonstrates Cyprus's role as a vital node in international trade, while the later emergence of indigenous transport containers reflects a shift toward more decentralized, regional maritime networks.

These containers were not merely economic tools. They were integral to social life, serving as essential grave goods, vessels for ritual feasting, and even coffins for the very young. Their forms, fabrics, and contents, now accessible through scientific analysis, provide direct evidence for what Cypriots produced, consumed, and exchanged. The data show an island society that was not insular but deeply connected, selectively adopting foreign technologies like the potter’s wheel while maintaining robust handmade traditions for centuries.

Many questions remain. The precise contents of numerous vessel types are still unknown, requiring a more systematic program of organic residue analysis. The provenance of many Iron Age wares is still based primarily on style, and further chemical and petrographic studies are needed to link them conclusively to specific production centers [2, p. 306]. Continued underwater surveys will also undoubtedly clarify the scale and nature of Cyprus's maritime commerce [1, p. 2]. Yet the available evidence is clear: the humble ceramic jar, in its many forms, was a primary vehicle of the island's enduring connectivity with the wider Mediterranean world.