Kissonerga

History of Kissonerga

The archaeological complex known as Kissonerga, situated in southwestern Cyprus, represents a pivotal locale for comprehending the prehistoric sequence of the island. Comprising several distinct, yet often interrelated, localities—notably Kissonerga-Mosphilia, Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, Kissonerga-Skalia, and Kissonerga-Ammoudhia—this region offers an unparalleled stratigraphic and material record spanning from the Aceramic Neolithic through the Early and Middle Cypriot Bronze Ages. The enduring scholarly interest in Kissonerga stems from its exceptional longevity of occupation, the diverse material culture it has yielded, and the insights it provides into the social, economic, and technological transformations that shaped ancient Cypriot societies.

Geographical and Environmental Context

The Kissonerga sites are positioned on gently sloping terrain north of the Skotinis River, approximately one kilometre inland from the contemporary coastline in the southwestern corner of Cyprus, within the Ktima Lowlands. This region, historically fertile and well-watered, was demonstrably populated during the Chalcolithic period, forming a cluster of contemporaneous settlements. The topography, characterised by an intricate interplay of marine terraces and riverine systems, influenced settlement patterns and preservation. For instance, Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, while near the sea, is situated in an elevated position with expansive views. The presence of perennial rivers, such as the Dhiarizos and its tributary the Vathyrkakas near other important sites like Souskiou, underscores the importance of water access for prehistoric settlements in the broader region, and Kissonerga, though not directly on these larger rivers, benefits from similar landscape features that afforded agricultural viability and communication routes. The geological diversity of the Mamonia complex in southwestern Cyprus, with its varied igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, also played a role in resource availability and building material choices for these sites.

Kissonerga-Mosphilia: A Chalcolithic Nexus

Kissonerga-Mosphilia is arguably the most extensively excavated and pivotal site within the Kissonerga complex, offering the longest recorded occupation sequence in western Cyprus. Excavated as part of the Lemba Archaeological Project since 1983, it has provided comprehensive data on the late fifth to third millennia BCE. The site's stratigraphy has allowed for the discernment of five distinct periods, spanning from the Late Neolithic to the initial phases of the Early Bronze Age (the Philia phase), from approximately 4500 to 2300 BCE. This remarkable longevity, uncommon among prehistoric Cypriot sites, confers upon Kissonerga-Mosphilia an exceptional degree of stability.

The earliest evidence of settlement at Kissonerga-Mosphilia dates to the Late Neolithic period (Period 1A/B), around 4500 BCE. This phase is characterised by the presence of unabraded Combed and Red-on-White pottery, sometimes found in sealed deposits. While architectural remains from this period are indirect, suggested by associated pisé fragments, their ephemeral nature and susceptibility to erosion indicate structures built of less weather-resistant materials, possibly not maintained for permanent occupation. It is noteworthy that these are the first excavated Late Neolithic deposits in western Cyprus, and they exhibit no cultural connections with the much earlier Aceramic Neolithic culture. The site also saw funerary and daily life activities during the Early Chalcolithic period (Period 2), though erosion has left scant traces of surface remains. Early Chalcolithic structures were likely timber-framed and circular, often semi-subterranean, with associated bell-shaped pits suggesting communal grain storage.

The Middle Chalcolithic period (Period 3), specifically Periods 3A and 3B, witnessed a significant florescence at Kissonerga-Mosphilia, with occupation extending possibly to around 8 hectares. This phase marks a critical shift from ephemeral timber-framed structures to more substantial buildings with stone foundations, a developmental trajectory also observed at other sites like Lemba and Erimi. Excavated structures in the main area demonstrate four building phases, and successive building units are evident. Period 3B, dated more precisely to around 3200–2900 BCE, shows a continuous occupation and an increased variety and number of structures. A notable innovation of this phase is the development of a standardised internal segmentation of the Middle Chalcolithic house into four distinct activity zones, including living/sleeping areas, tool storage, food processing, and a central hearth.

The Middle Chalcolithic period at Kissonerga-Mosphilia is particularly distinguished by its large circular buildings, which, with internal areas exceeding 77 square meters, are among the largest in prehistoric Cyprus. Their construction required sophisticated engineering skills and demonstrates a concerted, yet relatively short-lived, concentration of labour in this part of the site. These imposing structures, along with finely painted pottery, a diverse range of coroplastic and other art forms, and occasional imports, reflect a thriving population and suggest an increase in social divisions leading to the production of more "luxury" goods.

Of particular archaeological significance is the evidence for public ritual at Kissonerga-Mosphilia, exemplified by Unit 1015 and Unit 1225. These deposits, buried in an open space, are interpreted as communal "closure ceremonies," involving the public deposition and "deconsecration" of symbolically important items before the community vacated the area. The stylistic heterogeneity of the old and new figures in these hoards suggests a single, special source rather than individual household contributions. This public ritual and ceremony served to enhance the importance of participants and the status of the site as a ceremonial centre, integral to maintaining, defining, and modifying societal structure. Among the notable finds from this period are the largest picrolite cruciform figurine from Cyprus, as well as faience beads found in or near chamber tombs. The presence of faience, a material often associated with Mainland Asia and Egypt, raised questions about local production versus import, though it was likely formed by the florescence technique, a considerable and unlikely achievement for Cypriots. Ground stone artefacts from the site, which boast a major repertoire of the Chalcolithic period, have been used to establish a typology for classifying similar objects from contemporary sites like Souskiou. Building 3, a major dwelling, further illustrates the accumulating wealth and control exercised by its occupants, evidenced by its eleven permanent storage jars, a concentration indicative of impressive wealth and control over productive labour.

After a significant hiatus of approximately 200 years, Kissonerga-Mosphilia was reoccupied during the Late Chalcolithic period (Period 4), from around 2700 to 2400 BCE. This phase demonstrates a continuation of occupation, though the number of inhabitants appears to have decreased. Mortuary practices also shifted, with adults and children being buried on settlement ground in Period 4, in contrast to the earlier Period 3 where more than half of the buried individuals were young children. This suggests a major ideological shift in burial customs. The site also continued into the Early Bronze Age, with Period 5 assigned to the EC Philia phase (c. 2400 BCE). Kissonerga-Mosphilia provides crucial evidence for the transition between the Late Chalcolithic and the EC Philia culture, indicating a continuous occupation from Period 4b. This transitional period is marked by a "radically altered ceramic tradition," featuring Red Polished (Philia) and Black Slip-and-Combed pottery, with Red Polished vessels predominating. Furthermore, evidence from Period 5 confirms contacts with Anatolia, as seen in the reintroduction of cattle and the emergence of pot burials. The changes in economy, including a decrease in pig, also characterise this period. Kissonerga-Mosphilia, therefore, stands as a primary source for understanding this complex cultural transformation in Cypriot prehistory, bridging a gap where many Late Chalcolithic sites ceased to exist.

Kissonerga-Mylouthkia: Early Insights into Human Colonisation

Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, another locality within the Kissonerga complex, offers crucial evidence for the earliest human occupation of the region, dating back to the Cypro-PPNB (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) period. Period 1A at Mylouthkia, dated to around 8600–8200 BCE, is evidenced solely by a well (Well 116) and its contents, contemporary with the Early Phase A at Shillourokambos. The construction of these deep wells demonstrates a high level of water engineering technology. The abandonment fills of the wells indicate the presence of a sedentary or semi-sedentary community, living in timber structures and practicing a mixed agricultural economy supplemented by fishing. Mylouthkia also provides early evidence of stone bowl production and foreign contacts, notably through the presence of Anatolian obsidian. Unusually for such an early site, Mylouthkia is situated in close proximity to the sea, although the paleo-shoreline might have differed from today's.

Following a substantial temporal gap of approximately a thousand years, Period 1B (Cypro-LPPNB), dated to around 7300–6800 BCE, is evidenced by additional wells, pits, and parts of an eroded curvilinear structure. Beyond the Neolithic phases, Mylouthkia also yielded Early Chalcolithic (Period 2) and Middle Chalcolithic (Period 3) features, indicating an uninterrupted occupation spanning a couple of centuries. The Early Chalcolithic remains primarily consist of negative features such as postholes and pits, with fragments of daub and oven remains suggesting ephemeral timber-framed structures. Pit 1, interpreted as a habitation, revealed four phases of timber-framed structures, interspersed with possible burials, perhaps representing abandonment or foundation rituals. Other pits were likely quarries for havara (a local building material) or refuse dumps. Notably, the earliest metal object yet excavated in Cyprus—a copper hook—was discovered at Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, dating to approximately 3500 BCE. The presence of two parallel ditches further inland, possibly defensive, adds another layer of complexity to the understanding of this Early Chalcolithic settlement.

Kissonerga-Skalia: A Bronze Age Industrial and Ritual Centre

Kissonerga-Skalia represents a critical transitional site, with occupation spanning from the Middle Cypriot III (MC III) to the Late Cypriot IA (LC IA) periods, roughly 1750–1550 BCE, before its abandonment early in LC IA. Located in close proximity to Kissonerga-Mosphilia (only about 100 metres to the southwest), Kissonerga-Skalia may represent a slight relocation or continuous occupation from the earlier Chalcolithic settlement. It is also considered the probable settlement associated with the necropolis at Kissonerga-Ammoudhia. Kissonerga-Skalia is one of the few coastal settlements identified from this transitional period.

The site is particularly noteworthy for a large industrial complex with monumental aspects, covering approximately 1600 square metres. Its construction involved significant planning and large-scale earthmoving, including levelling earlier occupation deposits and dumping fill to create an even surface. The scale of this building programme suggests widespread community involvement, though whether by consensus or coercion remains an open question. Despite the disparate wall alignments and architectural styles, the areas of the complex are connected by trampled mud plaster and lime plaster surfaces. The complex was occupied for a relatively short duration, perhaps only one or two generations, before the site's abandonment.

Ritual activities are a prominent feature of Kissonerga-Skalia. Specific deposits are associated with the levelling of older structures and the construction of the new complex building at the MC III–LC I transition. These include apparent foundation deposits and selected assemblages of animal remains and fineware pottery. The presence of miniature cups and bowls suggests an emphasis on eating and drinking, which authors interpret as communal consumption events fostering group cohesion. The substantial investment in construction and earthmoving points to the importance of apotropaic observances surrounding production and consumption for the inhabitants, though the short occupation suggests these efforts were ultimately ineffectual.

The pottery assemblage at Kissonerga-Skalia includes locally produced Deeply Incised (DP) and Red Polished (RP) wares, with fabric connections to nearby Kissonerga-Ammoudhia. Connections to northern Cyprus are indicated by the presence of RP III and RP IV. The discovery of large Plain White Handmade/Wheelmade (PWHM/PWWM) pithoi is particularly interesting, as the spread of this ware was limited to eastern Cyprus during this early stage, providing important evidence of inter-island exchange. The pottery from Skalia shows strong similarities to that from Kissonerga-Ammoudhia, reinforcing the idea of a close relationship between the settlement and its necropolis.

Kissonerga-Ammoudhia: A Middle Bronze Age Necropolis

Kissonerga-Ammoudhia is primarily known as a necropolis dating to the Early Cypriot (EC) and Middle Cypriot (MC) periods, with evidence extending at the latest to MC III. Situated on a terraced limestone escarpment at the southeastern edge of the modern village of Kissonerga, less than one kilometre southeast of Kissonerga-Skalia, the cemetery overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Agriokalami River to the south. While the exact settlement associated with this cemetery during the EC period remains elusive, it is strongly believed to be Kissonerga-Skalia, given the ceramic similarities.

The necropolis at Kissonerga-Ammoudhia contains rock-cut tombs. Although contextual information is often limited due to looting and subsequent construction programmes in the area during the 1980s and 1990s, the material recovered provides insights into chronological information and human behaviour. The most frequently represented wares are local productions like DP and RP, though the possible presence of PBR (Proto-Base Ring Ware), commonly dated to LC IA:1, in a reliable MC III context highlights the complexity of transitional ware identification.

Mortuary rituals at Kissonerga-Ammoudhia, typical for the EC-MC period, were likely employed by kin groups to maintain connections with ancestral ideologies and assert prestige. While some pit burials were found, some containing incomplete skeletal remains or those of multiple individuals, their precise ritualistic meaning remains uncertain, with suggestions ranging from secondary burials to unique features not observed elsewhere. The relatively low number of metal objects in funerary assemblages may offer limited information regarding the economy of the living society. However, the presence of DP ware, which appears in other sites across the island, indicates Kissonerga's participation in island-wide trade networks during the EC III period. The absence of Philia or Late Cypriot evidence from Ammoudhia suggests its use as a cemetery did not extend into these later periods, even as Kissonerga-Skalia shows continued habitation.

Conclusion: A Microcosm of Cypriot Prehistory

The archaeological sites collectively known as Kissonerga—encompassing Mosphilia, Mylouthkia, Skalia, and Ammoudhia—provide an exceptionally detailed and long-term narrative of human presence and societal evolution in southwestern Cyprus. From the earliest human incursions in the Aceramic Neolithic at Mylouthkia, marked by sophisticated water management and nascent foreign contacts, through the dynamic developments of the Chalcolithic period at Mosphilia, characterized by monumental architecture, complex ritual practices, and increasing social stratification, to the transitional Bronze Age phases seen at Skalia and Ammoudhia, the Kissonerga complex is a microcosm of Cypriot prehistory.

The continuous, albeit sometimes shifting, occupation of the Kissonerga area is particularly significant. It challenges notions of abrupt cultural breaks often posited for other regions, instead demonstrating adaptation, innovation, and a nuanced interplay of local traditions with external influences. The meticulous excavation and ongoing analysis by the Lemba Archaeological Project and other teams have provided invaluable data for understanding settlement patterns, economic strategies, craft specialisation (e.g., picrolite and faience production, stone tool typology), and the evolution of social complexity across millennia. While questions remain, particularly regarding the exact nature of settlement continuity between sub-periods and the precise function of some unique features, Kissonerga stands as a cornerstone for future research into the formative periods of Cypriot civilization. Its archaeological record is not merely a collection of isolated finds but a rich tapestry demonstrating the resilience and adaptability of ancient communities on this pivotal Mediterranean island.