Lemba-Lakkous

History of Lemba-Lakkous

The archaeological site of Lemba-Lakkous, situated in the Paphos District of western Cyprus, holds a pivotal position in our understanding of the island's Chalcolithic period. As an integral component of the Lemba Archaeological Project (LAP), this site has provided fundamental data that has reshaped chronological frameworks and shed light on the social and economic complexities of prehistoric Cypriot communities. Readers approaching Lemba-Lakkous are often seeking insight into the emergence of settled life and early societal structures on Cyprus, and the archaeological record from Lemba provides a detailed, well-stratified narrative of these developments.

Discovery and Excavation History

The site of Lemba-Lakkous was initially identified in 1975 during a survey in the Paphos region. Its potential was recognized due to its relatively undisturbed nature, a significant advantage over many contemporary sites which suffered from extensive looting. Systematic archaeological investigations at Lemba-Lakkous commenced in 1976 under the direction of Edgar Peltenburg, then of the University of Glasgow, later the University of Edinburgh. These excavations, conducted over seven seasons until 1983, formed a cornerstone of the broader Lemba Archaeological Project.

The LAP was a multi-site research initiative designed to address lacunae in the understanding of western Cypriot prehistory, particularly the Chalcolithic period, for which comprehensive excavation data was scarce prior to these efforts. Beyond Lemba-Lakkous, the project extended its scope to other key sites in the vicinity, including Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, all located in the Ktima Lowlands. The project aimed to decode the qualitative differences that both caused and sustained the unusual status of exceptionally large Mediterranean settlements, a challenge given the typical degradation of stratigraphy on sloped and shallowly stratified sites in Cyprus due to heavy precipitation.

Excavation at Lemba-Lakkous proceeded in two main areas: Area I, located seaward to the west, and Area II, situated upslope to the east, approximately 100 meters apart. While these investigations were extensive, covering approximately 900 square meters in the first four seasons alone, they explored only portions of the settlement. Consequently, a complete plan of the entire settlement for each period of occupation could not be provided, and estimations of the overall community size remain approximate, suggesting a population ranging from several dozen to a couple of hundred individuals. Despite these inherent limitations, the systematic approach of the LAP at Lemba-Lakkous and its companion sites yielded the most comprehensive evidence from a Chalcolithic site in Cyprus to date, revealing formative changes between chronological periods and insights into external contacts.

Chronology and Periods of Occupation

The Chalcolithic period in Cyprus spans a considerable duration, approximately from 4000/3900 to 2500/2400 cal BC. Lemba-Lakkous exhibits evidence for three primary, albeit likely discontinuous, phases of occupation within this period: Period 1, Period 2, and Period 3.

Period 1 is attributed to the very end of the Early Chalcolithic and extends into the Middle Chalcolithic, with an estimated date range of c. 3500–3000 BC. Its dating relies on the recovered pottery assemblage. This phase is chronologically later than transitional Early Chalcolithic sites such as Kissonerga Mylouthkia and Kalavasos Ayious.
Period 2 falls within the Middle Chalcolithic, approximately contemporary with the site of Erimi, and is dated to c. 3400–2800 BC. The chronological attribution for this phase also relies on ceramic evidence.
Period 3 represents the latest occupational phase at Lemba-Lakkous, corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic period, from c. 2700–2400 BC. This period is further subdivided into two sub-phases, with its dates being the most securely established through archaeological contexts.

The presence of apparent gaps in occupation between Period 1 and 2, and most likely between Period 2 and 3, suggests a dynamic settlement history rather than continuous habitation. This phased approach, refined through the work of the Lemba Archaeological Project, has been crucial in dividing the Cypriot Chalcolithic into Early, Middle, and Late phases, providing a more nuanced understanding of this critical prehistoric era.

Settlement Layout and Architecture

Lemba-Lakkous is strategically positioned on the gentle slopes of a marine terrace, offering views towards the coast. The Potamos tou Kocha (or Argokalami) flows to the north, while the Argakin tou Taisi lies to the south, indicating its access to water resources. The overall assumed extent of the settlement is estimated at approximately 3 hectares, stretching about 300 meters from east to west.

The architectural remains at Lemba-Lakkous reflect an evolution in building techniques and societal organization throughout its occupation.

Period 1 structures were characterized by ephemeral, timber-framed circular constructions. This building style is comparable to early phases at sites such as Kissonerga Mylouthkia and Kalavasos Ayious. One notable example is Building 1, illustrating these early domestic arrangements.
By Period 2, the site saw the development of more substantial circular buildings, some of which incorporated stone foundations. This architectural progression aligns with developments observed at Erimi during its Period 2.
Period 3 exhibits a distinct spatial shift, with most archaeological features concentrated in the southern part of Area II. This phase is notable for its differentiated structures, suggesting a more complex and specialized organization of space. For instance, Building 2, the largest structure of this period, featured an unusual entrance with a covered porch and an internal corridor, and its interior was divided by a partition wall. Its estimated storage capacity of approximately 3.8 cubic meters for foodstuffs and the presence of non-functional objects suggest it was a prestigious generalized habitation. In contrast, Building 3, an annex to Building 2, was characterized by a specialized function, containing eight large storage vessels, ground stone and flint tools, and a significant proportion of Period 3 animal bones, along with two unusual hearths. This evidence points to its use as a communal unit for food preparation and storage. Building 7, the smallest structure, featured four basins, a mortar, a hearth, and 16 stored rubber stones, indicating another communal area for food and liquid preparation. Building 14 was also extraordinary, with two large caches of axes/adzes. This differentiation in building function, with specialized communal units alongside general habitations, suggests a more formalized version of independent household units composed of multiple "rooms," a notable contrast to the simpler arrangements of Period 1. The orientation of entrances in Period 3 structures, consistent with Period 1, implies a continued focus on winter use. Overall, an increase in storage, now linked to specific structures, is observable in Period 3, though whether this signifies a shift within the society remains a subject of investigation.

Material Culture and Economy

The material culture recovered from Lemba-Lakkous provides rich detail on the daily lives, economic practices, and craft specialization of its Chalcolithic inhabitants.

Pottery: The ceramic assemblage includes various fabrics, with Combed Ware and Basket Ware attested in earlier phases. Red Polished ware is also present. The distinctive "Lemba Ware" is a significant ceramic type associated with the site.
Stone Tools: Chipped stone artifacts from Lemba-Lakkous number approximately 7,561, a sizable collection though smaller than assemblages from Souskiou Laona or Kissonerga Mosphilia. The ground stone repertoire is diverse, encompassing axes, adzes, rubbing stones, querns, rubbers, and pestles, many of which were recovered from Period 3 structures. Petrographic analysis indicates that raw materials for these tools were predominantly sourced from local beaches and riverbeds, particularly Potima beach and the Mavrokolymbos riverbed.
Picrolite: While not as extensive as at Souskiou Laona, where picrolite production was a major industry, Lemba-Lakkous has yielded picrolite objects and fragments, including a Chalcolithic figurine. Picrolite pendants are also documented.
Metal Objects: Evidence for early metallurgy is present at Lemba-Lakkous. Two copper-based objects – a chisel and a corroded trapezoidal piece of metal – were found in well-stratified deposits at the end of Period 1 or during Period 2 in Building 3, dated to approximately 2500 BC. Later, in Period 3, a copper blade and a copper chisel were recovered, associated with the final phase of Building 3, dating to the mid-3rd millennium BC. These finds demonstrate early exploitation of metal at the site.
Beads and Ornaments: Beads, while a minor component in terms of range, are numerically significant. Lemba contains Type 4 (thick oblate) beads, among other types also found at Souskiou and Vathyrkakas. Dentalium shells are particularly common, found in a substantial number of intact features at Souskiou, a pattern likely mirrored at Lemba given its proximity and contemporaneity. Dentalium shells were notably found in Grave 47 at Lemba-Lakkous.
Faunal Remains: Analysis of faunal remains reveals a shift in subsistence patterns between Period 2 and Period 3. Earlier phases show a reliance on hunting, with fallow deer being a major meat source alongside pig and caprine, similar to Mylouthkia. However, in Period 3, the importance of hunting declined as animal husbandry became increasingly significant, with domesticated animals like pig and caprine becoming more prominent. This suggests a transition in economic strategy, moving towards greater reliance on controlled food production. Tools related to butchering were identified in Building 3, further illuminating economic activities.
Plant Remains: Archaeobotanical data from Souskiou Laona have been compared with contemporaneous levels at Lemba-Lakkous (Periods 2 and 3), contributing to broader discussions on agricultural practices in the region.

Mortuary Practices

Mortuary practices at Lemba-Lakkous primarily involve pit burials. Two successive burials (Grave 9 and Grave 37) were cut through the floor of Building 4 in Period 3, indicating a practice of interring individuals within or very near settlement structures. While the precise attribution of all graves to specific periods is challenging, many pit burials in Area II (the Southern Sector) are believed to belong to the early phase of Period 3 and were generally located at a distance from contemporary buildings, although some were in proximity. Grave 47, specifically, contained dentalium shells as grave goods, a type of ornament frequently found in intact Chalcolithic burials across western Cyprus, including Souskiou and Vathyrkakas. The discovery of the first Chalcolithic cemetery in western Cyprus, foreshadowing Bronze Age customs, underscored the importance of sites like Lemba in understanding early Cypriot funerary traditions.

Regional Context and Comparative Significance

Lemba-Lakkous is recognized as one of the "out-sized" or major Chalcolithic sites on Cyprus, though it is comparatively smaller than some others, such as Kissonerga Mosphilia, estimated at 3 hectares compared to Mosphilia's 12 hectares. It is a foundational site within the "Lemba cluster," which includes Kissonerga Mylouthkia and Kissonerga Mosphilia, all situated in close coastal proximity in the Paphos District.

The investigations at Lemba-Lakkous have been instrumental in:

Chronological Refinement: Its well-stratified sequence has contributed significantly to establishing a robust chronological framework for the Chalcolithic period, allowing for the precise dating and division into Early, Middle, and Late phases. It also provides an important reference point for the initial date of Philia Phase settlements in the northwest of Cyprus.
Understanding Settlement Evolution: The architectural changes observed across Lemba's three periods illustrate a progression from ephemeral structures to more formalized, differentiated household units, offering insights into the evolution of social organization.
Economic Transitions: The shift from hunting to increased reliance on domesticated animals at Lemba, documented through faunal analysis, reflects broader economic developments occurring in Chalcolithic Cyprus.
Material Culture Studies: The comprehensive analysis of pottery, stone tools, picrolite, and early metal objects from Lemba has provided comparative data that enhances the understanding of technological innovations, resource procurement strategies, and inter-site relationships across the island. For instance, comparisons of archaeobotanical and chipped stone assemblages between Lemba-Lakkous, Kissonerga Mosphilia, and Souskiou Laona contribute to discussions on site functionality and regional variation.
Regional Interaction: Lemba, alongside Mosphilia, Souskiou, and Erimi, is considered a regional distribution center within the Chalcolithic settlement hierarchy. Comparisons with other sites like Erimi and Kalavasos Ayious highlight shared architectural and ceramic traditions, pointing to intra-island connections and cultural similarities.

In conclusion, Lemba-Lakkous stands as an essential archaeological site for comprehending the Cypriot Chalcolithic. Its meticulous excavation by the Lemba Archaeological Project provided a wealth of data that delineates the architectural, economic, and social transformations of this formative period. The insights gained from Lemba, particularly its detailed occupational sequence, material culture assemblages, and evidence of evolving communal organization, contribute fundamentally to our broader understanding of early complex societies in the Eastern Mediterranean.