The Statues and Figurines of Ancient Cyprus

The production of statues and figurines in ancient Cyprus spans millennia, creating a rich and complex archaeological record that reflects the island's internal social developments and its extensive connections across the Mediterranean [1, p. 217]. Crafted from materials like local limestone, terracotta, and occasionally metal, these objects range from highly schematic prehistoric figures to life-size classical statues, offering profound insights into the ritual practices, social organization, and cultural identity of Cypriot society from the Neolithic period through the Roman era [2, p. 13; 1, p. 20].

The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods (c. 9000–2500 BC)

Figurine production in Cyprus begins in the Aceramic Neolithic period, though finds from this era are scarce [3, p. 35; 4, p. 116]. The earliest examples, dating to the Cypro-Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B (Cypro-PPNA/B), show considerable variety in form and function despite their small numbers [4, p. 403]. These initial figurines, found at both coastal and inland sites like Ayia Varvara Asprokremnos and Parekklisha, were predominantly made of stone, with only a few examples in baked clay [2, p. 120; 4, p. 92]. The repertoire includes simple, schematic "pebble figurines," created by modifying waterworn stones with notches to suggest a human form, as well as more detailed anthropomorphic representations [2, p. 95]. Their contexts suggest they were used by the living, possibly in foundation or closure rituals, with a broader mortuary function generally ruled out [2, p. 115]. The origins of these earliest figures are debated, but some may represent imported designs from the mainland, such as the Southern Levant, rather than purely local inventions [4, p. 120].

The subsequent Chalcolithic period saw a significant increase in figurine production and variety [3, p. 35; 5, p. 155]. While stone remained an important medium, the use of clay became more common, with fabrics and painted motifs often shared with contemporary pottery vessels [5, p. 155; 6, p. 72]. This period is renowned for its distinctive cruciform figurines, a type largely restricted to Cyprus, often carved from picrolite and depicting figures with outstretched arms and bent legs [2, p. 347; 4, p. 13]. Chalcolithic figurines are typically more individualistic than their Bronze Age successors, with a strong emphasis on female characteristics, though sexually ambiguous and male figures also exist [7, p. 8; 4, p. 145]. They have been found in a greater variety of contexts than their Neolithic predecessors [4, p. 403].

Cruciform Figurines

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The Bronze Age (c. 2500–1100 BC)

Base Ring Bull Vessels

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Base Ring Figurines (Astarte Type)

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Plank Figures

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The beginning of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) marks a distinct cultural break, characterized by the appearance of the iconic plank-shaped figurines [4, p. 13]. These highly stylized, flat figures are made almost exclusively of clay, typically in Red Polished Ware, and feature incised linear and geometric decorations that may represent clothing and ornamentation [3, p. 35; 8, p. 19]. While some scholars suggest a connection to Anatolian prototypes, the plank figures developed a uniquely Cypriot character [8, p. 19; 9, p. 59]. Found in both settlements and tombs, they are often discovered deliberately broken in funerary contexts [8, p. 19]. Though frequently interpreted as female, many lack explicit gender markers, and their ambiguity has been seen as a medium for exploring broader social issues [1, p. 34].

In the Middle Bronze Age (MBA), the standardized plank figure tradition gave way to greater coroplastic diversity, with figures becoming less flat and more difficult to classify into specific types [3, p. 35; 10, p. 3]. The bull, an animal of cultic importance since at least the MBA, becomes a significant subject, represented in terracotta figurines and on sanctuary models [11, p. 186]. While most MBA figurines come from tombs on the north coast, particularly at Lapithos, examples from settlements like Ambelikou-Aletri and Politiko-Troullia have been found near pottery and textile workshops, hinting at their integration into daily life and craft production [10, p. 3; 12, p. 1].

The Late Bronze Age (LBA) witnessed a notable increase in production and a return to standardization, likely linked to urbanization and increased trade [13, p. 298]. The dominant terracotta types were female figurines, often with prominent pierced ears and bird-like faces, and bull figurines, many made in Base-Ring ware [3, p. 35; 1, p. 174]. These mass-produced clay figures are found predominantly in funerary contexts and were symbols of a local tradition with deep roots in the island's prehistoric past [14, p. 42].

In contrast to the standardized terracotta figures, a small number of unique metal figurines (bronze, silver, and gold) appear in the LBA, almost all with distinctive non-Cypriot features [15, p. 41]. These include figures in Levantine, Hittite, and Aegean styles, such as the "Ingot God" and "Horned God" from Enkomi [15, p. 41]. Found in elite urban centers and cult buildings, these metal figures are interpreted as elite markers, reflecting the cosmopolitan culture of the LBA elite and their control over resources like copper [14, p. 42].

During this period, Cypriot figurines were also exported, with examples found at sites in the Levant and Egypt [15, p. 41; 1, p. 205]. Conversely, Cyprus imported a small number of Mycenaean-type figurines, which are the only imported figurine type found on the island during the LBA [1, p. 195]. This interaction also brought Aegean artistic and religious ideas, such as the "goddess with upraised arms" type, which was introduced from Crete and adapted by Cypriot coroplasts [16, p. 203; 17, p. 21].

Iron Age to Roman Period (c. 1100 BC onwards)

Horse and Rider Figurines

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Figurine and statue production increased dramatically during the Cypro-Archaic period, driven by a new demand for votive offerings for the many urban, suburban, and rural sanctuaries established with the rise of the Cypriot city-kingdoms [18, p. 11]. Sanctuaries became repositories for hundreds or even thousands of votives, as exemplified by the remarkable discovery of some 2,000 terracotta statues and statuettes arranged in a semicircle around an altar at the rural sanctuary of Ayia Irini [19, p. 6; 20, p. 7].

Materials and Techniques Terracotta remained a primary medium, but large-scale statuary in local soft limestone also became widespread from the late 7th century BC [21, p. 36]. The production of large terracotta statuary actually predates limestone carving and likely had a significant impact on its development [18, p. 17]. Terracotta manufacturing techniques were varied; figures could be entirely handmade, often using the "snowman technique" where the body is a simple, abstract form, or made with wheel-turned cylindrical bodies [22, p. 263; 23, p. 2]. Molds, an innovation from the Levant, were introduced in the 7th century for mass-producing faces or entire plaque figures [18, p. 11]. Limestone from local quarries, particularly the soft, chalky limestone of the Pachna formation, was favored for carving [24, p. 3; 3, p. 401].

Types and Iconography The Iron Age repertoire is exceptionally diverse. Common types include standing male and female votaries, warriors, musicians, horse-and-rider figurines, and models of chariots [25, p. 4; 26, p. 273]. Bull figurines continued to be a popular dedication at almost every sanctuary, attesting to the animal's widespread cultic significance [27, p. 229]. A significant development was the introduction of Near Eastern types, such as the nude Astarte plaque figurine and the seated pregnant dea gravida, which were adopted and adapted by Cypriot workshops [28, p. 306; 29, p. 309]. Figures wearing bull masks also appear, suggesting their use in specific ritual performances, primarily in sanctuaries dedicated to male deities [30, p. 23; 31, p. 21].

Styles and Foreign Influences Cypriot sculpture of the Iron Age is characterized by a dynamic synthesis of local traditions and foreign influences. Various styles have been identified, including a "Proto-Cypriote" style with Syro-Anatolian parallels, a "Cypro-Egyptian" style reflecting contact with Egypt, and later, "Cypro-Greek" styles showing influence from Ionia, Aegina, and Attica [22, p. 217; 32, p. 78]. These influences are visible in dress, posture, and facial features, such as the adoption of the archaic Greek smile [22, p. 95; 33, p. 256]. This stylistic blending created a distinct Cypriot artistic identity, recognizable even in works exported across the Mediterranean [34, p. 112]. Cypriot-style limestone statuettes have been found in sanctuaries in the Aegean at sites like Samos, Rhodes, and Cnidos, as well as in the Levant at Sidon and Byblos, and in Egypt at Naukratis [35, p. 20; 22, p. 201]. Scientific analyses have confirmed that the vast majority of these were carved from Cypriot limestone and exported from the island, though a local workshop producing Cypriot-type statuettes has been identified at Cnidos [3, p. 401].

Archaic Limestone Statues

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Herakles-Melqart

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Temple Boys

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The Hellenistic and Roman Periods

The tradition of dedicating statues and figurines continued into the Hellenistic and Roman periods, but with significant stylistic and typological shifts [36, p. 3]. The local tradition of carving votives in soft limestone persisted on a very large scale, but it increasingly assimilated features from Hellenistic art, particularly from Ptolemaic Alexandria [37, p. 219; 36, p. 3]. While some statues were once identified as portraits of Ptolemaic rulers, most scholars now see the numerous limestone heads with individualized features as "portrait-like" but generic representations of local Cypriot votaries, reflecting their accommodation of the prevailing Hellenistic culture [38, p. 342; 39, p. 341].

True royal portraiture appears to have been rare and largely restricted to imported marble, such as the heads of Ptolemaic queens and a unique limestone head of Alexander the Great from the site of Soloi-Cholades [39, p. 342; 38, p. 343]. The use of marble, which the island possesses but had previously been ignored by sculptors, became more common in these periods for high-status commissions and imperial works [37, p. 219; 40, p. 90]. In terracotta, the repertoire expanded to include figures wearing Greek-style theatrical masks, reflecting the introduction of Greek dramatic performances to the island [30, p. 23].

Function and Use

Across all periods, statues and figurines served multiple, often overlapping, functions. While some may have been children's toys or served profane purposes, their primary role appears to have been within the ritual and symbolic sphere [41, p. 127; 2, p. 115]. They could function as amulets, items for domestic cult, or burial gifts [38, p. 109]. In the Bronze Age, their deposition in tombs suggests a role in funerary rites, perhaps as companions for the deceased or representations of ancestors [8, p. 19; 42, p. 259].

In the Iron Age, the vast majority of figures were votive offerings dedicated in sanctuaries [43, p. 1]. These offerings were a primary means of communication with the divine, representing the worshipper standing in perpetual prayer before their god [44, p. 6; 38, p. 360]. The repetition of standardized types may have reflected a "communal prayer" by the community of worshippers [38, p. 360]. The size and quality of the offering often correlated with the social status of the donor, with wealthy patrons dedicating large-scale statues while others offered smaller, mass-produced figurines [41, p. 41]. Ultimately, the rich coroplastic and sculptural traditions of Cyprus provide a tangible record of the island's evolving beliefs, identities, and interactions with the wider ancient world [1, p. 198].