Early Bronze Age Incised Bottles in Cyprus: Regional Traditions in Form, Decoration, and Firing Technology

The Early Bronze Age in Cyprus, spanning from approximately 2400 to 1900 BCE, represents a period of significant cultural development, marked by the widespread production and circulation of a distinctive ceramic tradition known as Red Polished ware [1]. This ware, predominantly handmade, forms a substantial portion of the archaeological record from sites across the island, and its study offers insight into the technological capabilities, aesthetic preferences, and regional interactions of Early Bronze Age Cypriot communities. While Red Polished ware encompasses a broad range of forms, this analysis focuses on the specific category of incised bottles. These small, closed vessels, often featuring elaborate decoration and specialized surface treatments, provide a focused lens through which to examine craft specialization, regional stylistic identities, and the sophisticated pyrotechnological knowledge of ancient Cypriot potters.

Of particular interest are those bottles exhibiting multi-colored surfaces, a result of deliberate control over the firing atmosphere [2]. This phenomenon, which includes general mottling as well as the distinct "black-topped" finish, distinguishes certain regional assemblages and reflects an aesthetic choice beyond simple monochrome finishing [2]. By examining key assemblages from distinct geographical zones—notably the north coast necropolis of Vounous-Bellapais [3], south coast sites such as Sotira-Kaminoudhia [4], and contexts of the transitional Philia Phase: a detailed picture emerges of the typological diversity and manufacturing nuances of these vessels. This study will synthesize the available archaeological data to construct a comprehensive overview of Early Bronze Age bottles, focusing on the interplay between form, incised decoration, and the deliberate manipulation of surface color.

The Character of Red Polished Ware and its Variants

Red Polished ware was the dominant ceramic tradition in Cyprus for over half a millennium, its production extending throughout the Early and Middle Bronze Age periods [5]. Its manufacture relied on hand shaping techniques, and its primary aesthetic appeal was derived from a meticulously prepared surface. The process involved coating the vessel with a thin layer of sifted clay, or slip, which was then rigorously polished, often with a pebble or other hard tool, to impart a characteristic lustre [6]. The resulting slip color could range from dark red to brown or yellowish buff, depending on clay composition and firing conditions [2].

Significant regional distinctions are evident in the fabric of Red Polished ware. During the Early Cypriot (EC) I–II periods, pottery produced in the central lowlands and on the south coast typically featured a hard, gritty fabric with numerous small black and white inclusions. This composition often produced deliberate, though not entirely predictable, mottled effects on the surface upon firing. In contrast, potters on the north coast, particularly at the major production center of Vounous, tended to employ softer clays with fewer inclusions. This finer fabric was more conducive to the elaborate and finely executed incised decoration that became a hallmark of the north coast style. While the red polished slip was the norm, its adherence varied; on some examples, it is prone to flaking, and worn sherds can be mistaken for Plain White Ware. The interior of these closed vessels was typically left unslipped and uneven.

Within this broad tradition, several variants relevant to the study of bottles can be identified. These should not be understood as entirely separate wares, but rather as specific technological or regional expressions of the core Red Polished ware production method.

Red Polished III Black-Topped Ware: Primarily associated with the north coast, this designation refers to Red Polished vessels, particularly bottles, that were intentionally blackened on their upper portions [8]. This bicolored effect was achieved through differential firing, where the upper part of the vessel was subjected to a reducing atmosphere while the lower part was oxidized.

Black Polished Ware: This ware is essentially a variant of Red Polished ware where the vessel was fired entirely in a reducing atmosphere, resulting in a black, lustrous surface. The clay is typically fine and gray, and the surface is covered with a polished black slip. These vessels are often decorated with incised patterns filled with white lime, creating a stark contrast. The finest examples are associated with the north coast.

Brown Polished Ware: Identified as a standardized type at the south coast site of Kaminoudhia, this ware represents a distinct regional tradition. It was manufactured from a fine, soft, light gray-brown clay containing fine black, white, and organic temper [2]. A notable feature is the frequent distinction between a browner core and a gray exterior surface. The vessels were coated with a thin, lustrous dark brown to grayish-brown slip that often exhibits lighter patches. This ware has been interpreted as a south coast attempt to emulate the Black Polished ware of the north, but its distinct fabric and surface coloration mark it as a separate regional product.

Pyrotechnology and Surface Appearance: The Creation of Mottled and Black-Topped Surfaces

The presence of multiple colors on a single vessel is a distinctive feature of certain Early Bronze Age wares, resulting from a sophisticated understanding of kiln atmospherics. This phenomenon, encompassing both irregular mottling and controlled zonal coloration, demonstrates the ability of Cypriot potters to manipulate oxygen levels during firing to achieve specific aesthetic outcomes.

A precursor to this technique is observed in the Late Chalcolithic period (c. 2900/2700–2400 BCE) with the production of Red and Black Stroke Burnished Ware. These vessels exhibit distinct, highly burnished surfaces with colors ranging from red to brown, often with irregular black marks understood to be the result of deliberate reduction [9]. This tradition of intentional color variegation continued and was refined in the Early Bronze Age. The technical principle involved controlling the firing atmosphere: an oxidizing environment (oxygen-rich) produces red and brown colors by converting iron oxides in the clay to their ferric state (hematite), while a reducing atmosphere (oxygen-poor) produces gray and black colors by converting them to their ferrous state (magnetite).

Within the Early Cypriot ceramic repertoire, several distinct applications of this technology are evident on bottles.

First, a general mottled effect is characteristic of Red Polished ware from the central lowlands and south coast during the EC I–II periods. A Red Polished Mottled jar, for instance, is described as having a lustrous dark red-brown slip mottled with black, dark gray, light gray, and dark pink. This effect, while not precisely controlled in its pattern, was a consistent and deliberate feature of the regional production, suggesting an aesthetic preference for variegated surfaces.

Second, bottles of the Philia Phase display more controlled color variation [7]. A fragmentary Red Polished Philia bottle from Nicosia-Ayia Paraskevi is described as having a surface that is mostly gray-brown with black areas, possibly with a black lower body and a brown or red-brown upper body, neck, and rim. This structured color contrast on a single vessel, achieved through careful placement in the kiln or manipulation of the firing cycle, is characteristic of Philia Red Polished ware.

Third, the "Brown Polished" ware of the south coast demonstrates another form of controlled mottling. The slip on these bottles is a lustrous dark brown to grayish-brown, often with lighter areas. The entire spectrum of brown, gray, and lighter patches on a single vessel was likely achieved through specific firing schedules designed to produce this particular dark, variegated finish, distinguishing it from the brighter red of standard Red Polished ware.

Fourth, the most explicit example of controlled differential firing is the "black-topped" finish of Red Polished III bottles from the north coast. On these vessels, the upper part of the body and the neck were intentionally and consistently blackened, while the lower body remained red-brown. This was likely achieved by inverting the vessels in a layer of organic material (such as chaff or dung) during firing. The organic matter would smolder, creating a localized reducing atmosphere around the upper portion of the bottle, while the lower part, exposed to the open air of the kiln, oxidized. The sharp, clean line often seen between the red and black zones attests to the potters' high degree of control. The deliberate creation of these multicolored surfaces reflects a sophisticated understanding of ceramic technology, moving beyond a simple monochrome finish to produce visually complex objects that were valued for their distinctive appearance.

Typology and Morphology of Early Bronze Age Bottles

Early Bronze Age incised bottles exhibit significant regional variation in their morphology and decorative schemes, reflecting distinct local traditions within the broader Red Polished ware horizon. The necropolis at Vounous-Bellapais on the north coast has provided the most extensive corpus, allowing for a detailed typological sequence.

The North Coast Tradition: Vounous-Bellapais

Excavations at Vounous have yielded a substantial number of Red Polished and Black Polished bottles, primarily from tombs of the EC II and EC III periods (Vounous Periods II and III, respectively) [3]. These vessels display considerable typological variation, but a few standard forms recur with notable frequency [3].

The most common form is the pear-shaped bottle with a blackened upper part (Type III). Described as having a pear-shaped body, a tapering neck, and a funnel rim, this type is a hallmark of the Vounous assemblage. It is consistently decorated with incised ornamentation, and its bicolored finish is its most distinguishing feature. This type was recovered in large numbers from multiple tombs, including eleven examples from Tomb 2, seven from Tomb 7, and ten from Tomb 9, attesting to its status as a standard funerary offering.

Other Red Polished bottle forms from Vounous include the globular bottle (Type I), which features a globular body and a short cylindrical neck, and is also incised. Less common are bottles with conical bodies, flat bases, and cutaway necks (part of the broader Type IV classification), and a unique horn-shaped bottle (Type V) with a flat base and incised decoration, recovered from Tomb 9. Another variant is the nearly cylindrical bottle (Type VI a), with a globular body, tapering neck, and often a small string-hole projection near the rim.

Vounous also produced a distinctive series of Black Polished bottles [3]. These share forms with their Red Polished counterparts but are fired black and highly polished. An example from Tomb 7 is described as having a conical body, a flat base, a cutaway neck, and two small pierced knobs at the base of the neck, with incised ornamentation. Another from Tomb 16 was pear-shaped with a tapering neck and two string-holes by the rim. The presence of both Red Polished black-topped and fully Black Polished bottles in the same contexts highlights the potters' command of firing techniques and the production of a varied ceramic suite.

The South Coast Tradition: Sotira-Kaminoudhia and "Brown Polished" Ware

At Kaminoudhia on the south coast, a highly standardized bottle type known as "Brown Polished" ware was produced during the Philia Phase and into the Early Bronze Age proper [4]. These vessels are distinct from the north coast types in both fabric and form. They are generally small, with round bases—a feature uncommon for other vessel types at the site. Their bodies are typically globular or piriform, with narrow necks terminating in flaring rims. A key morphological detail is the presence of two opposed holes pierced just below the rim, suggesting a specific method for sealing the vessel, perhaps with a stopper tied down with string.

This ware is characterized by its remarkable uniformity in production, suggesting an organized craft specialization, possibly for a specific, valuable commodity. Although found in settlement contexts, most examples derive from the cemetery. Three main subtypes have been identified based on minor variations in proportion and decorative style: Bottle Type A, the standard form, is exemplified by well-preserved examples from Tomb 4 (P27, P29). Bottle Type B features a more globular body and a shorter, slightly conical neck, with a distinct incised style (e.g., P98 from Tomb 12). Bottle Type C, represented by a single worn example (P105), has a shorter, wider neck and a squatter, possibly piriform, body. Its decorative style aligns more closely with north coast black-topped bottles, suggesting it may be a later development at the site.

The Philia Phase Tradition

The Philia Phase, marking the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age, presents its own distinct bottle forms, classified as Red Polished Philia small bottle (Type D) [4, 7]. This type is attested at most Philia sites. These bottles are distinguished by their squatter bodies, thicker walls, and characteristically round bases. As noted, they frequently display mottled surfaces, with controlled zones of gray-brown and black. Their incised decoration is typically simpler than that of later EC bottles, consisting of motifs such as parallel lines and herringbones.

Systems of Decoration

The incised decoration on Early Bronze Age bottles, while following the general repertoire of Red Polished ware, exhibits regional and chronological variations that correspond to the typological groups. The fundamental technique involved incising linear patterns into the leather-hard clay before firing. After firing, these incisions were often filled with a white, chalky substance, likely lime plaster, to create a stark visual contrast with the polished red, brown, or black surface.

On the north coast, particularly at Vounous, incised ornamentation was a favored technique. The common black-topped pear-shaped bottles (Type III) are consistently described as "incised." While Dikaios's report [3] does not always detail the specific motifs for every bottle, the sheer quantity indicates a well-established decorative system. A clearer picture is provided by a north coast RP III black-topped bottle (P74) imported to Kaminoudhia. Its incised decoration consisted of horizontal lines on the upper body and at the neckline, with a more complex horizontal band of straight and broken lines dividing concentric circles at mid neck. This combination of simple framing lines with more complex geometric compositions appears to be characteristic of the north coast style. Black Polished bottles from Vounous were also incised, often with complex geometric patterns of hatched bands, lozenges, and concentric circles.

The Brown Polished bottles from the south coast are distinguished by what is described as "elaborate finely incised decoration," executed with great precision. The motifs are densely packed and complex. On Type A bottles from Kaminoudhia (P27, P29), the decoration includes multiple horizontal zigzags, with the intervening spaces filled by groups of short parallel and dotted lines. On a Type B bottle (P98), a horizontal panel is framed by groups of horizontal lines and contains a horizontal double zigzag filled with transverse lines, creating a checkered effect. The neck is decorated with multiple herringbone motifs alternating with checker filled lozenges. These intricate and meticulously executed patterns underscore the high value placed on these standardized regional products.

Decoration on Philia Phase bottles was generally simpler, reflecting an earlier stage in the development of incised ornamentation. Motifs typically included bands of parallel straight lines and herringbone patterns covering the body. This less complex but repetitive ornamentation is a defining characteristic of the Philia decorative aesthetic.

Function and Distribution

The morphology of Early Bronze Age bottles—their small size, narrow necks, and restricted orifices—strongly suggests they were designed as containers for valuable or specialized liquids. Substances such as perfumed oils, resins, or perhaps early forms of medicine or narcotic potions would have been stored and transported in these vessels. The elaborate decoration and specialized firing techniques further indicate that the bottles themselves, not just their contents, were objects of value. The carefully pierced holes below the rims of south coast Brown Polished bottles imply a secure closure method, such as a stopper secured with cordage, a necessary feature for transporting and preserving precious fluids. The discovery of these vessels in both settlement and funerary contexts suggests their use in both daily life and ritual practice, with their inclusion in tombs indicating they were considered essential or prestigious items for the afterlife.

The distribution of these distinct bottle types provides critical evidence for intraisland interaction and regional exchange networks. Some types, like the Brown Polished ware of Kaminoudhia, appear to be highly regional products, largely confined to the south coast. Their standardization, however, suggests they were produced not just for local use but possibly for a localized trade network within the southern part of the island.

In contrast, the Red Polished III black-topped bottles produced on the north coast had a much wider distribution. The discovery of a fragmentary example (P74) at Kaminoudhia is clear evidence of inter-regional exchange between the north and south coasts. Such bottles have been found at sites across southern and central Cyprus, including Alassa, Phaneromeni, Kalavasos, and Marki. This widespread circulation suggests that these vessels, and likely their contents, were traded commodities moving along established exchange routes that connected the different regions of the island during the Early Cypriot III period. These patterns reveal a dynamic landscape of localized craft traditions coexisting with broader networks of exchange, with these small, decorated bottles serving as tracers of early Cypriot economic and social interaction.

Conclusion

Early Bronze Age incised Red Polished bottles and their variants are a key component of the ceramic material culture of ancient Cyprus. Their study moves beyond general typological classification to reveal a complex interplay of technology, regionalism, and exchange. The morphological variations; from the squatter forms of the Philia Phase to the standardized globular bottles of the south coast and the elegant pear-shaped vessels of the north—highlight the development of distinct, localized craft traditions across the island. The consistent application of intricate incised decoration, meticulously filled with white lime, demonstrates a shared aesthetic sensibility and a high level of technical skill.

However, it is the deliberate creation of multi-colored surfaces that offers the most direct insight into the pyrotechnological capabilities of Early Bronze Age potters. The controlled mottling on Philia and south coast wares, and particularly the standardized black-topped finish of the north coast RP III bottles, attest to a sophisticated command of kiln atmospheres. This was not a mere technical exercise but an aesthetic choice, transforming monochrome vessels into visually complex objects.

The function of these bottles as containers for valuable liquids is implied by their form and reinforced by their inclusion in high-status funerary contexts. Furthermore, their distribution patterns map the contours of Early Bronze Age interaction. While some types like Brown Polished ware reflect a localized production and exchange system, the wide circulation of north coast black-topped bottles across the island demonstrates the existence of robust, inter-regional trade networks. As such, these small, elegant vessels are not merely static artifacts; they are dynamic indicators of technological innovation, regional identity, and the economic and social systems that structured Early Bronze Age Cypriot society.