Sotira

The Archaeological Significance of Sotira

The archaeological landscape of Cyprus is replete with sites that offer critical insights into the island's deep past, from the earliest human occupations to the complex city-kingdoms of the Iron Age. Among these, the cluster of sites known collectively as Sotira holds a significant position, particularly in elucidating the transitions within the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods. The main sites associated with the name "Sotira" are Sotira-Teppes and Sotira-Kaminoudhia, representing distinct phases of occupation that are pivotal for understanding Cypriot prehistory. While "Sotira Vrysi" is not explicitly defined as a separate archaeological site in the provided sources, the "Sotira Culture" is widely recognized, and sites like Ayios Epiktitos-Vrysi exemplify characteristics comparable to Sotira-Teppes, thus contributing to the broader understanding of this cultural period.

This article will delineate the archaeological significance of Sotira-Teppes and Sotira-Kaminoudhia, discussing their chronological placement, settlement patterns, material culture, and contributions to our understanding of social organization on prehistoric Cyprus.

Sotira-Teppes: A Window into the Ceramic Neolithic

Sotira-Teppes is the eponymous site for the Ceramic Neolithic period in Cyprus, often referred to as the Sotira Culture. This period marks a crucial phase following an apparent cultural hiatus of approximately 500 to 1000 years after the Aceramic Neolithic Khirokitia Culture. While some scholars have posited a complete abandonment of the island during this gap, or a new wave of immigration, others suggest an indigenous, continuous development where islanders adopted less substantial building techniques and a more mobile lifestyle, thus leaving low-visibility archaeological sites. The consistency in chipped stone, ground stone, and bone tool industries across this supposed gap tends to support an argument for continuity, although new cultural elements, such as fully developed pottery technology, indicate significant shifts.

The Ceramic Neolithic, or Sotira Culture, is generally dated to around 4500 BC, based on recalibrated radiocarbon determinations. Settlements of this period, including Sotira-Teppes, are typically small villages, ranging from approximately 0.5 to 1.5 hectares in size, often situated in strategic, elevated positions that may have provided a defensive character. The general uniformity observed across the island's Sotira Culture sites, despite some regional variations in pottery, suggests widespread contacts among the inhabitants.

At Sotira-Teppes, archaeological investigations have revealed a settlement with a compact distribution of buildings, reminiscent of the layout seen at Khirokitia. The architectural development at Sotira-Teppes is characterized by a progressive expansion of the inhabited areas and a superimposition of constructions during its main occupational phases. The initial phase of occupation, Phase 1, featured monocellular free-standing structures thinly spread across the plateau. Subsequent Phases 2 and 3 witnessed a significant change, with the construction of new buildings and the addition of annexes and subsidiary structures to existing constructions, leading to a clustered spatial pattern. Notably, at Sotira-Teppes, building with stone predominated over building with earth, a practice contrasting with many other prehistoric Cypriot settlements where mudbricks and mud walls are more common, despite the availability of calcareous colluvial soils in the area. This preference for stone construction may relate to erosion and preservation issues common in semi-arid Mediterranean regions, but it also indicates culturally determined choices in material selection.

The economy of the Sotira Culture was fundamentally based on a mixed subsistence strategy, incorporating agriculture, livestock farming, hunting, gathering, and fishing, typical of the Ceramic Neolithic period. In terms of social organization, the Sotira Culture, as exemplified by Sotira-Teppes, is generally marked by an egalitarian society, with little evidence for pronounced social stratification. However, some social disparities are recognizable at other contemporary sites like Ayios Epiktitos-Vrysi, where differences in building sizes and the distribution of finds among structures hint at emerging social distinctions.

Mortuary practices underwent a notable change in the Ceramic Neolithic. Unlike earlier periods where burials were often found within houses, at Sotira, graves were located outside dwellings, possibly in designated, segregated zones. This shift provides valuable information on evolving concepts of community, death, and spatial organization.

External contacts during the Ceramic Neolithic appear to have been limited. Few finds, such as an incised pebble or obsidian artefacts from Kalavasos Kokkinoyia, hint at some transmaritime relations. These sparse interactions suggest either tenuous links maintained across the chronological hiatus or brief re-establishments of contact during the 5th millennium BC. The introduction of pottery, a hallmark of the Sotira Culture, indicates a significant technological innovation that distinguishes this period from the Aceramic Neolithic.

Sotira-Kaminoudhia: The Early Bronze Age Transition

Sotira-Kaminoudhia represents a later, distinct occupational phase, dating to the Early Bronze Age (specifically, the Early Cypriot III period). The site's name, meaning "small lime kilns," refers to its location on the south-facing slopes north of the modern village of Sotira, at an elevation of 290-300 meters above sea level within the southern chalk plateau region, characterized by Pakhna Formation chalks and limestones.

The site was initially identified through its cemetery, a common occurrence for many Prehistoric Bronze Age sites in Cyprus due to historical looting activities. While the Souskiou cemeteries, for instance, were extensively pillaged, systematic archaeological work has demonstrated that valuable information can still be retrieved from such disturbed mortuary landscapes. Although the provided sources do not explicitly detail the extent of looting at Sotira-Kaminoudhia itself, the context of its initial identification suggests a similar history of disturbance to other Cypriot cemeteries.

Excavations at Sotira-Kaminoudhia identified two occupational phases, with the later Phase II and earlier Phase I primarily dated to ECIII through ceramic analysis and radiocarbon dating. The radiocarbon dates indicate that these phases were separated by a relatively short period, at most 70 years. Sotira-Kaminoudhia is of particular interest as it offers important new evidence for understanding the emergence and development of Chalcolithic (late 4th and early 3rd millennia BC) communities. This period is often associated with the Philia Facies, a transitional phase between the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. While the presence of Philia pottery at Sotira-Kaminoudhia has been posited, its definitive demonstration remains challenging due to the difficulty in distinguishing certain Red Polished and Red Polished (Painted) sherds.

The settlement layout at Sotira-Kaminoudhia does not exhibit a rigid, organic plan typical of some later urban centers, which might suggest less centralized, supra-household spatial organization. However, evidence of communal infrastructure exists. The site features narrow alleyways (e.g., numbers 30-3, 37-42) that provided access to various units of the settlement. These alleys were likely constructed and maintained by the groups living nearby who utilized these spaces most frequently. The predominance of stone building over earth construction, as seen at Sotira-Teppes, also continues at Kaminoudhia.

Area B at Sotira-Kaminoudhia is particularly revealing. It includes a wide and straight street (Unit 13), measuring between 1.70 m and 2.50 m in width, which dictated the alignment of the prominent Unit 12 complex. Unit 12 is interpreted as an unroofed, unclosed area that may have served ceremonial activities. Its more structured plan and elaborate architectural form, distinguishing it from the domestic buildings in Area A, suggest it functioned as a space for social interaction and aggregation beyond the individual household level. This feature provides early evidence for 'aggrandizing behaviour' in Cypriot prehistory, albeit perhaps by a group rather than an individual, as seen in the monumental Tomb 73 at Souskiou Vathyrkakas. The existence of such a communal-based organization hints at nascent social complexity during this period.

The ceramic assemblage from Sotira-Kaminoudhia is critical for investigating technological and social developments during its approximately 600 years of occupation. The rich array of pottery, alongside cruciform figurines (though the prominent cruciform figurines and picrolite production are more strongly associated with Souskiou), provides invaluable insights into the material culture of these Early Bronze Age communities. The decorative features on vessels and sherds include pattern-painted motifs (Red-on-White wares), surface mottling, incision, relief, and basket impressions. Many well-preserved vessels also show signs of polishing or burnishing. Some unique pottery vessels found in tombs at both Laona and Vathyrkakas (Souskiou) lacked known parallels elsewhere in Cyprus, suggesting a strong local character in ceramic production, possibly reflecting distinct identities of different tomb populations. While this specific uniqueness is highlighted for Souskiou, Sotira-Kaminoudhia's pottery would contribute to the broader picture of regional ceramic traditions and their variations.

The Broader Significance of the Sotira Sites

The archaeological sites of Sotira-Teppes and Sotira-Kaminoudhia, along with other sites contributing to the understanding of the "Sotira Culture," collectively offer a crucial continuum for studying Cypriot prehistory. Sotira-Teppes provides fundamental data on the Ceramic Neolithic, illustrating the widespread adoption of pottery, evolving settlement patterns from loosely spread to clustered structures, and shifts in mortuary practices. It underscores the resilient agricultural and pastoral economy of the period and the generally egalitarian social structure.

Subsequently, Sotira-Kaminoudhia bridges the gap to the Early Bronze Age, providing insights into the Philia Facies. This site demonstrates the transition to more structured, albeit not fully urbanized, settlement layouts, with evidence for communal spaces that suggest nascent forms of supra-household organization. The preference for stone construction across both periods at Sotira highlights a consistent response to local environmental conditions and cultural choices, contrasting with building practices elsewhere on the island.

Placed within the broader context of Cypriot archaeology, the Sotira sites contribute significantly to several key research areas:

• Chronological Frameworks: They help define and refine the chronological sequences of the Ceramic Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age, periods that are less clearly understood than some later eras.
• Settlement and Architectural Evolution: They provide tangible evidence for the development of architectural traditions, from earlier circular domestic units to more complex, stone-built habitations, and the emergence of planned communal areas.
• Social Dynamics: The shift from largely egalitarian societies (Sotira-Teppes) to communities showing early signs of social differentiation and supra-household organization (Sotira-Kaminoudhia) offers a detailed case study for understanding the emergence of social complexity in prehistoric Cyprus.
• Material Culture and Technology: The extensive ceramic assemblages reveal technological innovations, decorative styles, and potential regional specializations, contributing to the broader understanding of Cypriot pottery traditions.

In conclusion, the Sotira sites are not merely points on a map but represent critical junctures in the human narrative of Cyprus. They offer concrete evidence of how early communities adapted to their environment, organized their social lives, and developed distinct cultural practices over millennia. For researchers and enthusiasts alike, these sites provide a fundamental understanding of the transformations that shaped Cypriot society from the early adoption of pottery to the foundational developments of the Early Bronze Age. Ongoing research and meticulous publication, such as that compiled in Sotira Kaminoudhia: An Early Bronze Age Site in Cyprus, continue to unlock the complexities of these pivotal periods, reinforcing Sotira's enduring importance in Cypriot and Levantine archaeology.