Bottles

Among the diverse ceramic repertoires of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean, few vessel types are as evocative as the small, closed containers from Cyprus. From the lustrous, spindle-shaped bottles of the Late Bronze Age to the painted barrel-flasks of the Iron Age, these vessels were more than simple pottery. They were specialized containers, carefully designed to hold and transport valuable liquid commodities across the sea. Their evolution in form, fabric, and manufacturing technique, combined with their widespread distribution in tombs and sanctuaries from Egypt to Anatolia, provides a detailed record of Cyprus's shifting economic strategies, technological capacities, and its deepening integration into the wider commercial and cultural networks of the ancient world. This article will trace the development of these bottle-shaped vessels, examining the evidence for their production, their probable contents, and their role in the long-distance exchange that defined the island's history.

Early Precursors and the Middle Bronze Age Tradition

The concept of a bottle-like vessel has deep roots in Cyprus. During the Chalcolithic period, potters produced tall-necked bottles and flasks as part of a limited repertoire of handmade shapes [1, p. 5; 2, p. C10]. However, it was during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1650 BC) that small, closed vessels began to play a distinct role in the island’s nascent export economy. The majority of Cypriot vessels imported into the Levant during this period were handmade jugs of White Painted (WP) ware, typically with a globular body and a narrow neck [3, p. 5]. These were part of a wider Cypriot ceramic tradition that included bowls, cups, and tankards, but it was predominantly the closed jugs and juglets that were selected for export [3, p. 5].

These early exports, found at over 30 sites in the Levant as well as at Tell el-Dab’a in the Egyptian Delta, established a pattern of exchange that would intensify in later periods [4, p. 160; 5, p. 160]. The demand for these vessels and their contents was strong enough that local imitations soon appeared. In Egypt, a category known as Painted Tell el-Yehudiyeh Ware adopted the wavy and straight-line decoration of Cypriot WP Pendent Line Style, though often on a globular body shape with no direct parallel in Cyprus [4, p. 159; 6, p. 159]. This suggests that Cypriot pottery was already a recognized and valued commodity, spurring local production that mimicked its distinctive aesthetic.

The Late Bronze Age: Proliferation and Specialization

The Late Bronze Age (c. 1650–1050 BC) marks a period of major social and economic transformation on Cyprus, driven largely by the systematic exploitation of its copper resources [7, p. 204]. This era saw an explosion in the production and export of highly specialized ceramic containers. While a variety of handmade and wheel-made wares co-existed, two handmade wares in particular, Base Ring and Red Lustrous Wheel-made, came to dominate the export market for small containers, each with a distinctive form and likely a specialized function.

Base Ring Ware and the Opium Debate

Appearing at the beginning of the Late Cypriot period, Base Ring (BR) ware is a highly distinctive, handmade fabric with extremely thin walls and a polished, often dark brown or black slip that gives it a metallic quality [8, p. 37; 9, p. 401]. While the repertoire included bowls and larger jugs, the most widely exported form was the small juglet, often called a ‘bilbil’ [10, p. 20]. The shape of these juglets, with their tall, narrow necks and globular or poppy-shaped bodies, has long been the subject of scholarly debate [8, p. 37].

The most prominent theory, first proposed by Robert Merrillees, is that the form of the BR juglet intentionally mimics the seed pod of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), advertising its contents as a liquid opium solution [11, p. 812]. This hypothesis has received support from chemical analyses of residues found inside some Base Ring juglets, which have identified opium alkaloids [11, p. 812]. Finds of double juglets, which recall the shape of inverted poppy capsules, have also been cited as evidence for this trade [12, p. 158]. However, the contents were not uniform. Analyses of other juglets have found traces of wax or pure fat, which may have been ingredients for perfumed oils [13, p. 62]. Dried remains have been found adhering to the inside of some examples, though their specific nature is often unconfirmed [12, p. 158]. Whether they contained opium, perfumed oil, or another precious liquid, BR juglets were clearly valued export commodities. They circulated extensively throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, penetrating inland Syria and reaching Upper Egypt, where they are found in 18th Dynasty burial contexts [14, p. 118; 12, p. 158]. The popularity of the ware abroad likely spurred mass production on Cyprus, which may have led to a decline in quality in the later Base Ring II phase [10, p. 20].

Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware: A High-Status Container

Perhaps the most iconic container of the Late Bronze Age is the Red Lustrous Wheel-made (RLW-m) spindle bottle. This ware stands in stark contrast to the handmade tradition of Base Ring. Produced on a potter's wheel, RLW-m vessels have a distinctive, highly burnished red surface and were made from a fine, homogenous clay [15, p. 60; 16, p. 4]. Production began in the sixteenth century BC and lasted for approximately 350 years [15, p. 60]. The repertoire of shapes is limited, dominated by three main forms: the tall, slender spindle bottle; the lentoid or ‘pilgrim’ flask; and the unusual arm-shaped vessel, which features a long tubular body ending in a human hand holding a small cup [15, p. 60; 16, p. 3].

The origin of this highly standardized ware has been a point of contention for decades. Early studies suggested a source in Syria or Cilicia [17, p. 3]. More recent scholarship has argued for a Cypriot origin, based on the fact that the greatest quantities of the ware, the fullest range of shapes, and the longest chronological distribution are all found on the island [18, p. 2; 17, p. 3]. However, the most recent multi-disciplinary studies, combining petrographic, geochemical, and isotopic analyses, have challenged the Cypriot origin hypothesis. These studies indicate that clay deposits in northern Cyprus are not compositionally related to the fabric of RLW-m ware [19, p. 16]. Instead, significant similarities have been found with clay deposits in the Göksu Valley in Rough Cilicia, Southern Anatolia, making this the most likely production center [19, p. 16; 19, p. 1]. The debate continues, but the evidence increasingly points away from Cyprus as the source of this major international ware.

Regardless of its origin, the function of RLW-m ware seems clear. The narrow apertures of the spindle bottle (ca. 1 cm) and arm-vessel suggest they contained free-flowing liquids [17, p. 7; 18, p. 3]. Early interpretations of the arm-vessel as an incense burner have been dismissed due to a lack of burning evidence [17, p. 7]. The most likely contents were valuable perfumed oils, a conclusion supported by residue analysis [17, p. 7; 20, p. 3]. The vessels were engineered to protect their contents; the dense fabric is non-porous, and some examples from the Hittite capital of Boğazköy show evidence of an interior lining of beeswax, which would have further sealed the container and prevented evaporation [17, p. 7; 18, p. 25].

The distribution of RLW-m ware reveals distinct patterns of consumption. The spindle bottle was the predominant form exported to Egypt and the Levant, where it is often found in tombs [20, p. 3; 21, p. 102]. In Lebanon, for example, 23 of the 24 known RLW-m vessels are bottles [4, p. 101]. In contrast, the arm-shaped vessel is most common in Anatolia, particularly at Hittite sites, where large quantities have been found in temple and domestic contexts [22, p. 10; 20, p. 13]. This suggests a different use and valuation of the vessels in different regions. The broken condition of many Hittite examples implies they were used repeatedly in rituals and replaced regularly, whereas the intact vessels from Cypriot tombs suggest they were deposited as valuable funerary offerings [17, p. 9; 23, p. 183]. Some scholars have proposed a linked usage at Hittite sites, with the spindle bottles used for transport and the arm-vessels for dispensing the liquid during rituals like anointing statues [20, p. 3].

Other Late Bronze Age Containers

While Base Ring and RLW-m wares were the most prominent export containers, other types also circulated. White Shaved ware juglets, with a distinctive spindle-shaped body and vertical trimming marks from being shaped with a knife, were also exported from Cyprus [12, p. 158]. Believed to be imitations of Palestinian dipper juglets, they were most likely used as commodity containers [12, p. 158]. Bucchero ware jugs, which have a close technological connection to Base Ring II, feature a ribbed body and have also been suggested to be modeled after opium poppy capsules [12, p. 158]. These diverse forms show a highly developed and segmented market for Cypriot liquid commodities during the Late Bronze Age.

Iron Age Transformations: New Shapes for New Markets

The transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age (c. 1050 BC) brought significant changes to Cypriot society and its ceramic industry. The island’s production shifted decisively towards wheel-made pottery, with Aegean-style tablewares eventually supplanting the traditional handmade wares [24, p. 83]. This period saw the development of new and characteristic bottle-shaped containers, which continued to be an important part of Cypriot trade.

The most characteristic forms of the Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic periods are the barrel-shaped jug and the lentoid pilgrim flask [25, p. 180; 26, p. 98]. These shapes appear in several wares, most notably Black-on-Red ware. Though introduced from the Levant, research has shown that Black-on-Red ware found on Cyprus was made locally [26, p. 98]. Small flasks and juglets of this ware were particularly popular exports, especially to the Aegean, where they were used as perfume bottles and were widely imitated in the Dodecanese and Crete [26, p. 98; 27, p. 35]. This trade demonstrates a reversal of influence from the Late Bronze Age, with Cypriot containers now being emulated in the Greek world. Another notable Iron Age type is the Black Slip Grooved Ware pilgrim flask, a form that appears to have had metallic prototypes and was most common in the region of Amathus [26, p. 98].

Contexts of Use and Production

Across different periods, the primary context for these specialized bottle-shaped vessels was funerary. The majority of Base Ring juglets, RLW-m vessels found on Cyprus, and Iron Age flasks come from tombs [7, p. 161; 28, p. 4]. Their inclusion as grave goods underscores the high value placed on both the container and its contents. Wear marks, such as chipped spout rims and worn handles, indicate that many of these vessels were used repeatedly during life before being deposited in the tomb [7, p. 162; 29, p. 110]. This suggests they were personal possessions of the deceased, not items made specifically for burial.

The production of these vessels reflects the broader technological landscape of Cyprus. The persistence of highly skilled handmade production for fine tablewares like Base Ring and White Slip, long after the introduction of the potter’s wheel, is a notable feature of the Late Bronze Age [9, p. 401]. The potter's wheel was known and used on Cyprus from the beginning of the period, primarily for plain wares [17, p. 2]. The choice to continue making Base Ring juglets by hand was therefore a deliberate one, rooted in a strong craft tradition that was valued both at home and abroad. This technological conservatism contrasts with the wheel-made technology of RLW-m ware, highlighting the complex and compartmentalized nature of ceramic production during this period of intense international contact [30, p. 83].

Conclusion

The evolution of bottle-shaped vessels in ancient Cyprus offers a focused lens through which to view the island's long-term economic and cultural trajectory. From the early handmade WP jugs of the Middle Bronze Age to the sophisticated and widely traded containers of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, these vessels map Cyprus's growing engagement with the Eastern Mediterranean. They show that the island was not merely an exporter of raw copper, but also a producer and distributor of valuable secondary products, such as perfumed oils and medicinal substances like opium [31, p. 242].

The forms themselves—the poppy-shaped Base Ring juglet, the elegant RLW-m spindle bottle, the unique arm-vessel—functioned as a kind of branding in a largely pre-literate society, their distinctive shapes advertising their valuable contents [4, p. 232]. The intense scholarly debate surrounding the origin of RLW-m ware highlights the complexity of manufacturing and exchange networks, reminding us that items found in abundance in one region may have been produced in another. Further scientific analysis of both ceramic fabrics and organic residues is needed to resolve these questions conclusively [28, p. 12; 18, p. 25]. What remains clear, however, is that these small, closed vessels were far more than simple containers. They were carriers of value, agents of cultural exchange, and enduring markers of Cyprus’s central role in the commerce of the ancient world.