Khirokitia

History of Khirokitia

Khirokitia, known archaeologically as Khirokitia Vounoi, is an important site for understanding the Aceramic Neolithic period in Cyprus. The settlement was so influential that its name is used to describe the entire Late Aceramic Neolithic phase on the island, a period of about 1,600 years known as the "Khirokitia culture." Located in the Maroni River valley, about 6 kilometers from the southern coast, the site offers a detailed record of the island's early agricultural communities, including their unique architecture, burial practices, and social development.

Discovery and Ongoing Research

The site was first identified in 1934 by Porphyrios Dikaios of the Department of Antiquities. He led excavations from 1936 to 1939 and returned for another season in 1946, uncovering about 2,700 square meters. This initial work established the site's unique characteristics.

In 1977, research began again under the direction of Alain Le Brun, leading a French mission from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This long-term project makes Khirokitia one of the most thoroughly studied Aceramic Neolithic settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean. The continuous research has advanced the understanding of how Neolithic life developed on an island.

This extended period of study has allowed archaeologists to refine earlier interpretations. For example, a feature Dikaios called the ‘Main Road’ was later identified by Le Brun as an enclosure wall (Mur 100) that marked the boundary of the settlement’s initial phase. Later work uncovered a second enclosure wall (Mur 284) in the western part of the site, suggesting the settlement expanded as its population grew. While these massive walls may have served a defensive purpose or controlled access, there is no direct evidence of warfare. They may have instead been part of the community's social organization.

Chronology and the Khirokitia Culture

The Khirokitia culture represents the Late Aceramic Neolithic (LAN) in Cyprus, dating from approximately 7000/6800 BC to 5200 BC. This culture followed earlier periods of human activity on the island, including the Late Epipalaeolithic Akrotiri phase (11,000–9000 BC) and the Early Aceramic Neolithic (EAN) Cypro-PPNB (8500/8400–7000/6800 BC). Earlier sites from the Cypro-Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), like Ayios Tychonas Klimonas, show that people had already introduced non-native animals and cereals to the island from the mainland. The subsequent Cypro-PPNB period, seen at sites like Parekklisha Shillourokambos, also shows some mainland connections in its stone tool technology and evidence of circular structures and human burials.

Khirokitia represents the high point of this Aceramic sequence, showing the results of cultural processes that began at earlier sites. However, a gap of 500 to 1,000 years appears in the archaeological record after the end of the Khirokitia culture. This break separates it from the later Ceramic Neolithic (Sotira culture). The abandonment of Khirokitia and other LAN sites around 5500 BC is a subject of ongoing debate. Possible reasons include environmental pressures, population decline, or a shift toward a less settled way of life.

Architecture and Community Planning

The architecture of Khirokitia is defined by its circular buildings constructed from stone and earth. Excavations have uncovered about 65 of these structures, with exterior diameters ranging from 2.3 to 9.8 meters. The buildings had massive stone foundations, often built directly on leveled ground without trenches, and were topped with flat, terraced roofs. The interior walls were usually coated with mud plaster, which was sometimes painted, though only small fragments of these decorations have survived.

One notable building type is the "circular pillar building," a small round structure with stone and mud-brick walls and unusually large, rectangular pillars inside. This design first appeared at the nearby site of Tenta in the mid-8th millennium BCE and continued at Khirokitia with little change until the late 7th millennium BCE. Around 6200 BCE, however, the use of these pillars decreased sharply, and some were intentionally destroyed. This change was part of a broader shift in how the inhabitants organized their living spaces. While buildings remained circular, their interiors became more divided by partition walls. This suggests a move toward greater household privacy and away from older, more communal structures. It is likely that this was when true round houses emerged as family homes, distinct from earlier, communally-focused buildings.

The settlement's layout shows a high degree of organization. Khirokitia is notable for its monumental architecture and the scale of its public works, particularly its two enclosure walls. These walls point to an organized effort to define and control the settlement. A gate in the second wall likely served to regulate access. This level of construction implies a society that was structured enough to organize the labor needed for such large projects. With a population that may have exceeded 100–200 people, Khirokitia was a major population center for its time and would have required new kinds of social networks to function.

Daily Life and Material Culture

The artifacts recovered from Khirokitia offer a detailed view of the inhabitants' lives.

Stone Tools and Vessels

A large number of chipped stone tools have been found at Khirokitia. Studies of the stone tool industry have noted few direct similarities with assemblages from the Levant, suggesting local development. The toolmakers showed a clear preference for local raw materials. Andesite and diabase were the main stones used for ground stone tools and vessels. Picrolite, a local greenstone, was used to make ornaments. This focus on local stone suggests the community primarily exploited nearby resources.

Figurines and Ornaments

Khirokitia has yielded an unusual quantity and variety of human-like figurines. Over 27 figurines and statuettes have been found, which is a large number compared to other Neolithic sites on Cyprus. The presence of these figures, along with a sophisticated stone vessel industry, suggests Khirokitia was a center for producing decorated stone objects. Archaeologists have also found carnelian beads and marble pendants, which may indicate that some limited contact with the mainland continued.

Subsistence Economy

The economy combined farming, raising livestock, and gathering wild resources. Evidence shows the cultivation of domesticated cereals like einkorn, emmer, and barley, as well as legumes. Fruits such as figs and pistachios were gathered, and olives were also used. Animal herding was very important, with domesticated sheep, goats, and pigs providing a major food source. At coastal sites from the same period, marine resources were also part of the diet.

The subsistence strategy at Khirokitia changed over time. In later levels of the site, there was a sharp drop in the remains of fallow deer (from 34% to 9% of the animal bones) and pig (from 21% to 10%). At the same time, the remains of sheep and goats increased significantly (from 45% to 81%). This shows a clear shift away from hunting and toward a greater reliance on domesticated livestock. Notably, cattle, which were common on the mainland, were absent from Aceramic Neolithic Cyprus.

Burial Customs

Khirokitia provides a clear record of Aceramic Neolithic burial customs. The dead were usually placed in shallow pits dug beneath the floors of their homes, though some were buried outside. Most were single burials in a contracted, or fetal, position. Both adults and children were buried this way, and some double burials have also been found. After the body was placed in the pit, it was filled with earth and covered with a new layer of plaster, which often became the new floor of the house.

A notable practice at Khirokitia was artificial skull deformation, where an infant's head was bound to change its shape as it grew. This practice was observed twice as often in females. It was also common to place a quern (a grinding stone) or another large stone on the body of the deceased, regardless of their age.

With 254 primary burials documented, the site offers a large sample for study. The burial practices were highly standardized, suggesting a society with shared rituals. Grave goods were generally simple, though some differences based on sex, age, and burial type can be seen. Most burials were in simple pits, but a small number were in pits lined with pisé (rammed earth) and pebbles, which might indicate a difference in status. The practice of burying the dead within the home suggests a strong connection to place and ancestry. This custom contrasts with later Ceramic Neolithic practices, where the dead were buried outside of houses, sometimes in separate cemeteries.

The Khirokitia culture is generally seen as an agricultural society with a largely egalitarian social structure. However, the presence of large buildings and public works like the enclosure walls at Khirokitia suggests a more complex social organization. The ability to marshal labor for these communal projects points to a degree of social cohesion and leadership. While Khirokitia’s size required new social networks, the community does not appear to have developed into a more hierarchical society.

The relationship between Aceramic Neolithic Cyprus and the nearby Levant is a long-standing topic of discussion. For many years, the island's unique material culture and the decline in imported materials like obsidian led researchers to believe that Cyprus had become isolated after its initial colonization. However, more recent findings suggest that some connections were maintained, perhaps through infrequent sea voyages. The discovery of similar incised pebbles at Khirokitia and on the mainland hints at a shared field of cultural ideas.

Within Cyprus, Khirokitia was unique. Its size, monumental architecture, and evidence of social complexity set it apart from smaller contemporary villages and hamlets like Cape Andreas Kastros. The dense arrangement of buildings at Khirokitia, with structures built and rebuilt on top of one another over time, created a clustered settlement pattern that also appeared in some later Ceramic Neolithic sites on the island.