Chlorakas-Palloures

In the well-studied landscape of Chalcolithic western Cyprus, where decades of systematic research have shaped our understanding of the period, the excavation of a new site might seem unlikely to yield significant new insights [1, p. 31]. Yet, rescue excavations initiated in 2015 at Chlorakas-Palloures have demonstrated that substantial discoveries are still possible [2, p. 25]. Situated in the Ktima lowlands of the Paphos District, Palloures has emerged not as a mere addition to a familiar pattern, but as a site with a distinct character that refines and complicates the regional narrative [2, p. 14; 3, p. 2]. Threatened by modern development, the work at Palloures has revealed a settlement with monumental architecture, unique material culture assemblages, and a specific economic focus, offering a crucial new perspective on a pivotal era in Cypriot prehistory [1, p. 31; 3, p. 3].

This article presents the findings from the initial three seasons of excavation at Chlorakas-Palloures [4, p. 1]. It will first detail the site’s history of discovery and the context of the recent rescue project. It will then explore the settlement itself, examining the architectural remains, from monumental communal structures to smaller domestic units. Subsequent sections will analyze the material culture—ceramics, chipped stone, and ground stone tools—to understand the technology, economy, and potential external contacts of its inhabitants. Finally, by synthesizing the evidence from subsistence strategies and mortuary practices, the article will assess the position of Palloures within the broader settlement system of the Chalcolithic period and its contribution to understanding the transition from the Middle to the Late Chalcolithic in Cyprus [2, p. 14].

A Site Under Pressure: Discovery and Excavation

Chlorakas-Palloures, also known by the locality name Vrysoudhia, or ‘small springs,’ was first identified by archaeologists in the 1950s [5, p. 2; 4, p. 3]. It is one of several Chalcolithic sites situated on raised terrain overlooking the coastal plain near the modern city of Paphos [3, p. 2]. The site occupies a favorable position on a hill at the edge of Chlorakas village, with access to the varied ecological resources of the sea, coastal lowlands, and terraced uplands, which were likely forested during the Chalcolithic [4, p. 2]. The local name suggests the presence of a well or springs, a plausible water source for a substantial settlement not located near a river [4, p. 3].

Despite its potential, the site’s archaeological deposits have been severely compromised over the last half-century. A land consolidation program in the mid-1970s involved cutting roads through the settlement and extensive terracing, which displaced an estimated 4,400 cubic meters of soil and spread surface artifacts over an area of about five hectares [3, p. 3; 6, p. 15]. When the archaeologist Edgar Peltenburg visited in 1977, he observed traces of circular structures and paved surfaces that are no longer visible [6, p. 15]. Further terracing occurred in the 1980s for a banana plantation, which has since been abandoned [2, p. 14]. More recently, construction around the site's periphery has caused further destruction; at one point, deep excavations for a basement destroyed two round houses and approximately five burials, for which no records exist [6, p. 15].

Fortunately, the Lemba Archaeological Project repeatedly surveyed the site, collecting a total of 12,122 sherds [6, p. 15]. Analysis of this surface material, which included Red-on-White (9.4%), Red Monochrome (22.5%), and Red and Black Stroke Burnished (11.2%) wares, confidently dated the main occupation to the Middle and Late Chalcolithic periods [6, p. 15]. The surveys also noted a high proportion of chipped stone made from Moni chert, a desirable raw material [2, p. 14]. These preliminary investigations confirmed the richness of the deposits and the scale of their disturbance [6, p. 15].

The immediate impetus for the current excavations was the planned development of a central parcel of the site, Plot 568 [3, p. 3; 6, p. 13]. With the landowners unwilling to allow research, the plot was expropriated for a three-year period (2015–2017) to permit a rescue project led by Leiden University in collaboration with the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [6, p. 13]. Given the limited timeframe and the constant pressure for the release of the land, the excavation strategy focused on opening a series of trenches to gain a comprehensive understanding of the archaeological remains across the property [3, p. 3; 4, p. 3]. This work, though conducted under difficult circumstances, has already confirmed that despite decades of damage, the site retains immense archaeological value [6, p. 16].

Settlement and Society: The Architectural Evidence

Excavations on Plot 568 have uncovered the remains of at least thirteen buildings, revealing a settlement organized into two distinct architectural clusters [1, p. 4; 3, p. 3]. In the southern part of the excavated area, a series of smaller domestic structures, typically measuring four to six metres in diameter, were identified [3, p. 3]. In contrast, the northern area contained a group of larger and more substantially constructed buildings with unusual internal features [3, p. 3]. This spatial division suggests a degree of internal organization and possibly social differentiation within the Palloures community.

The most significant structure discovered is Building 1, located in the northern area [1, p. 31]. With a diameter of approximately 14 metres and well-built walls about a metre thick, it is one of the largest buildings known from Chalcolithic Cyprus [7, p. 94]. It featured a lime floor that extended over a threshold ramp to a portico, a large double-bowl mortar, two stone benches, and an exceptionally large hearth platform [1, p. 31; 4, p. 23]. The scale and features of Building 1 suggest it served a purpose beyond that of a typical household residence and may have been a locus for communal activities [7, p. 91]. However, like many other Chalcolithic structures, its floors contained few artifacts, suggesting it was cleared upon abandonment [4, p. 26].

Other buildings at the site are less well-preserved or more modest in scale. Building 5, an earlier structure in the sequence, measured about eight metres in diameter and was constructed on a leveled bedrock surface with a well-built wall standing four courses high [3, p. 3]. It was likely associated with a plastered raised hearth and a compact earth floor, on which a collection of ground stone tools, including a pestle 47.7 cm long, was found [3, p. 3; 4, p. 22]. Other structures, such as Buildings 2, 3, and 21, survive only as partial wall segments, making it difficult to determine their original size and function [4, p. 7]. The arc of the wall of Building 2 suggests a conventional Late Chalcolithic diameter of about 7.7 metres, while the straighter course of its successor, Building 3, implies a larger structure over ten metres in diameter [4, p. 7]. The variability in building size, construction quality, and internal features across the site underscores a level of architectural diversity that challenges perceptions of Chalcolithic society as entirely homogeneous [2, p. 13].

The Material World of Palloures

The artifact assemblages recovered from Palloures are as distinctive as its architecture, providing insights into craft production, subsistence, and regional interaction. The ceramics, stone tools, and faunal remains show both adherence to broader Chalcolithic traditions and characteristics unique to the site.

Pottery Production and Exchange

Analysis of the pottery confirms that the primary occupation of Palloures dates to the Middle Chalcolithic (ca. 3400–2900 BC) and Late Chalcolithic (ca. 2800–2400 BC) periods [2, p. 23; 6, p. 14]. From an initial sample of 5,497 sherds, approximately 48% were dated to the Middle Chalcolithic and 27% to the Late Chalcolithic [2, p. 23]. Trace amounts of earlier (Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic) and later (Roman) pottery were also found, but no substantial assemblages from other periods are present [2, p. 23].

The main ceramic types are Red-on-White (RW), Red Monochrome Painted (RMP), and Red and Black Stroke Burnished (RB/B) wares, which are typical for the period in western Cyprus [6, p. 15; 8, p. 84]. The RW ware of the Early and Middle Chalcolithic is characterized by calcareous clays and painted geometric or curvilinear patterns on a light-colored slip [9, p. 82]. In the Late Chalcolithic, this style was largely replaced by red monochrome types with finer, non-calcareous fabrics, thinner walls, and new surface treatments like relief decoration and distinct burnishing strokes [9, p. 82]. Late Chalcolithic Red Monochrome Ware was a primary ware at Palloures, particularly for storage jars [10, p. 3].

The Palloures project developed a new typology for its ceramic assemblage, deviating from the systems used for nearby sites like Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Lemba-Lakkous [2, p. 21]. This new approach uses overarching ware names based on distinctive characteristics (e.g., Red-on-White) and then distinguishes fabric and surface groups based on a combination of attributes, allowing for a more detailed and nuanced recording of pottery variation [2, p. 21].

While most of the pottery aligns with southwestern Cypriot traditions, small quantities of wares typically found in northern and southern coastal regions of the island indicate that the Palloures community maintained contacts with other parts of Cyprus [2, p. 23]. The complete absence of pottery from the subsequent Philia phase or the Early Bronze Age suggests the site was abandoned at the end of the Late Chalcolithic [2, p. 23].

Stone Tool Industries

The stone tool assemblages from Palloures are extensive and provide strong evidence for the site's economic activities and technological practices. The 2015-2017 seasons yielded a total of 1,180 ground stone artifacts and 4,365 pieces of chipped stone [4, p. 20].

The chipped stone industry is notable for its raw material preference. Nearly 50% of the assemblage is made of Moni chert, a high-quality material considered desirable in the Chalcolithic [4, p. 27; 2, p. 14]. This proportion is significantly higher than at nearby Lemba-Lakkous and Kissonerga-Mosphilia but comparable to Souskiou-Laona, a site located closer to the chert source [4, p. 26]. This preference was not simply a matter of proximity, as another site near the source has a low proportion of Moni chert, suggesting that Palloures was part of a preferential exchange network or a center for specialized tool manufacture [4, p. 26]. Tool production at Palloures appears largely expedient, characterized by multi-directional cores, direct percussion, and a high proportion of informal tools [4, p. 27]. A comparison of production ratios with Kissonerga-Mosphilia shows that Palloures has a higher ratio of tools to chips, indicating that available material was used economically [4, p. 28]. An unusual cache of eight large, skillfully made Moni chert flakes, found in a wall niche in Building 1, may represent blanks imported to the site for further reduction [4, p. 29].

The ground stone assemblage is diverse, comprising tools for chopping (axes, adzes, chisels), grinding (querns, handstones), and percussion (pounders, hammerstones) [2, p. 23]. The forms are largely typical of the Chalcolithic, including finely worked geometric axes and large, skittle-shaped pestles [4, p. 21]. A regional comparison reveals a distinct pattern at Palloures: the site has a lower percentage of chopping tools and a higher frequency of percussive tools than other contemporary sites [2, p. 23]. This may indicate that industrial processes were more common at Palloures, a conclusion supported by a deposit in a midden containing a high concentration of pounders [2, p. 24].

The site has also yielded significant figurative and ornamental objects. These include picrolite cruciform figurines and pendants, as well as cruder "gingerbread man" figurines made from calcarenite, with close parallels at Kissonerga-Mosphilia and Souskiou [4, p. 22]. A large, broken picrolite figurine was found in a pit in Building 7 that contained a remarkable collection of 81 ground stone objects, far exceeding a typical household toolkit [4, p. 25]. This deposit, containing many complete and usable tools, may represent a special deposit rather than simple refuse [4, p. 25]. The choice of visually appealing but less functional materials for some tools, such as a chisel made of white stone, reflects a broader Chalcolithic trend towards using stone for social display [4, p. 23].

Life and Death at the Settlement

The biological remains from Palloures provide direct evidence for the diet, health, and burial customs of its inhabitants. The faunal assemblage is dominated by the remains of Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) and pig, which together account for 85% of identifiable fragments [2, p. 24]. Caprines (sheep and goat) are much less common [2, p. 24]. This pattern points to a mixed subsistence economy combining the hunting of free-living deer with the husbandry of domesticated pigs and some caprines, a strategy consistent with other Late Chalcolithic sites like Kissonerga-Mosphilia [2, p. 24; 11, p. 64]. The reliance on hunting appears to have been a significant part of the food supply through the Chalcolithic period [12, p. 116]. Marine resources seem to have been exploited only minimally, evidenced by a single fragment of a crab claw [4, p. 31]. Archaeobotanical research for Chalcolithic Cyprus is still limited, with preservation often being poor, making it difficult to reconstruct the full scope of plant cultivation and use at the site [13, p. 44].

The human remains uncovered at Palloures adhere to established patterns for Chalcolithic intramural burials in western Cyprus [4, p. 20]. The burials consist of inhumations in simple pits, located within the settlement area [4, p. 19]. A demographic analysis of the skeletal remains shows that subadults form the largest portion of the buried population, with infants (neonate to 3 years) alone constituting 35.3% of individuals [4, p. 19]. The adult population is composed primarily of females; no definite adult males have been identified, a pattern also observed at Lemba-Lakkous and Kisonerga-Mosphilia [4, p. 19]. This suggests that adult men were regularly buried elsewhere, perhaps in extramural cemeteries that have not yet been discovered [4, p. 20; 14, p. 24]. Pathological analysis revealed very few anomalies, a finding likely attributable to the heavy fragmentation of the skeletons and the young average age of the individuals buried at the site [4, p. 19].

A New Perspective on the Cypriot Chalcolithic

After only three seasons of excavation, Chlorakas-Palloures has already contributed significantly to the archaeology of prehistoric Cyprus [1, p. 31]. In a region thought to be well understood through the extensive work of the Lemba Archaeological Project, Palloures has introduced unexpected variability, particularly concerning the transition from the Middle to the Late Chalcolithic, a period that is poorly known from other key sites [2, p. 14; 6, p. 13].

The discovery of the monumental Building 1, with its large scale and specialized features, suggests a level of social organization and communal activity that expands our view of Late Chalcolithic society [1, p. 31]. It raises questions about the emergence of social inequalities and the function of such large structures within these communities [7, p. 91]. The material culture from the site also sets it apart. The high proportion of prestigious Moni chert points to specialized exchange networks or craft activities, while the unique composition of the ground stone assemblage suggests a focus on industrial tasks not seen to the same degree at neighboring settlements [4, p. 26; 2, p. 24].

The finds from Palloures reinforce the view that Late Chalcolithic Cyprus was becoming increasingly connected to broader exchange networks, an idea supported by ceramic parallels and the presence of exotic materials at other sites [3, p. 11]. The site’s distinct artifactual signature, combined with evidence from its architecture and economy, demonstrates that Chalcolithic communities in western Cyprus, while sharing a broad cultural tradition, developed unique local characteristics.

Future work at Palloures holds the potential to answer many outstanding questions [2, p. 24]. Continued excavation may clarify the full extent and layout of the settlement, and further analysis of the faunal and botanical remains will provide a more detailed reconstruction of the subsistence economy [4, p. 31; 13, p. 87]. A key goal for future research will be to better define whether the differences observed between Palloures and its neighbors represent chronological developments or synchronic variation between distinct communities [4, p. 32]. The rescue work at this endangered site has already shown that even in familiar territory, the archaeological record of Cyprus has much more to reveal about its prehistoric past [1, p. 31].