Salamis
A pivotal ancient city-kingdom on the eastern coast of Cyprus, famed for its 'Royal Tombs', rich history from the Iron Age to Late Antiquity, and its significant role in the Mediterranean world.
History of Salamis
The ancient city of Salamis, located on the eastern coast of Cyprus, stands as a pivotal archaeological site, chronicling the island's history from the Early Iron Age through Late Antiquity. Known also by its French designation, Salamine de Chypre, and for specific archaeological areas such as Salamis-Cellarka and Salamis-Campanopetra, the site offers a profound understanding of Cypriot political, social, and cultural evolution. Its strategic coastal position, adjacent to the mouth of the Pedieos River, facilitated extensive interaction with the broader Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds, influencing its development as a prominent city-kingdom and later a significant Roman and early Christian centre. Unfortunately, direct archaeological fieldwork at Salamis has been suspended since the events of 1974, rendering much of the site inaccessible for ongoing research and leaving many aspects of its monumental urban topography still puzzling. Despite these limitations, the extensive excavations conducted prior to 1974, primarily by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus and the French Archaeological Mission, have yielded a substantial body of evidence, meticulously documented in various publications, including the multi-volume Salamine de Chypre series and Vassos Karageorghis's comprehensive Excavations in the Necropolis of Salamis. This existing corpus continues to be the foundation for scholarly work, inviting new interpretations and sustained academic discourse.
Origins and the Transition to the Iron Age
The foundation of Salamis is intrinsically linked to the decline of the nearby Late Bronze Age urban centre of Enkomi, situated approximately two kilometres to the southwest. Archaeological evidence suggests that Salamis began to replace Enkomi around the Late Cypriot IIIB period, coexisting for a time during the 11th century BC. The relocation to a coastal site with a natural harbour proved advantageous, positioning Salamis to dominate among the independent city-kingdoms of Cyprus from the 11th century BC onwards.
Literary traditions widely attribute the foundation of Salamis to the Greek hero Teucer, son of Telamon, who, after the Trojan War, settled in Cyprus and named the new city after his homeland, the island of Salamis in the Saronic Gulf. While these myths appear in sources dating from as early as the 5th century BCE, such as Pindar and Aeschylus, their direct archaeological corroboration for the earliest periods of Salamis remains a complex area of study. However, the discovery of a chamber tomb dating to the Cypro-Geometric period (11th century BC) south of the later Temple of Zeus Olympios does confirm the existence of a well-established seaside town in this area at that early date. This evidence suggests that the emergence of historical Salamis is not far removed from the dates provided by literary sources, such as the Parian Chronicle, which places the city's foundation around 1202/1 BC, approximately seven years after the fall of Troy. The earliest levels of the Salamis settlement, beyond a few architectural fragments, remain largely unexplored, with only limited soundings having been conducted. Nevertheless, pottery from these early contexts indicates connections with the Syro-Palestinian coast, rather than direct Aegean contact at this initial stage.
The City-Kingdom: Power, Wealth, and Mortuary Practices
During the Iron Age, encompassing the Cypro-Geometric (CG), Cypro-Archaic (CA), and Cypro-Classical (CC) periods, Salamis flourished as a pre-eminent city-kingdom in Cyprus. Its significance in this period is primarily understood through its mortuary record, particularly the celebrated "Royal Tombs" necropolis.
The Royal Tombs and Homeric Archaeology: The "Royal Tombs," a designation initially applied conventionally but later adopted to reflect their opulence, comprise a series of nine built chamber tombs used from the late 8th to early 6th centuries BC. These tombs were excavated largely by Vassos Karageorghis and Porphyrios Dikaios, beginning in 1957. Despite significant looting, the dromoi (approach passages) and propylaea (formal display areas) of these tombs often remained intact, preserving crucial evidence of elaborate funerary rituals and lavish offerings.
The burial customs observed in the Royal Tombs have attracted considerable scholarly attention, particularly for their striking similarities to practices described in Homer's Iliad, leading to the concept of "Homeric archaeology" in Cyprus. Key elements include the sacrifice of horses and chariots, as seen in Tomb 79, where the skeletal remains of horses and impressions of wooden chariot parts were meticulously unearthed. There is also evidence for offerings of honey and oil in amphorae placed beside the deceased, and in one notable instance, potential human sacrifice, although the latter is a contentious interpretation derived from ancient accounts. The presence of bronze, iron, ivory, gold, and silver luxury goods further underscores the wealth and status of the interred individuals.
The debate surrounding these "Homeric similarities" often revolves around whether they represent intentional echoes of the epic or are simply coincidental. Some scholars suggest these practices reflect a cultural memory or aristocratic ideology that sought to legitimize power and promote ancestral links, possibly linking to Mycenaean aristocrats who settled in Cyprus. The architectural use of ashlar masonry, reminiscent of Late Bronze Age Enkomi, in some Royal Tombs (e.g., Tombs 47 and 79), further supports a deliberate connection to past glories and the promotion of social memory. The theory suggests that the funerary displays were public events, intended to convey the economic success and strength of Salaminian rulers.
Individual tombs within the necropolis reveal specific details. Tomb 1, an early Iron Age tomb, contained predominantly Proto-White Painted and White Painted I pottery, along with some imported Phoenician vessels. Tomb 3, dated to the transition of Cypro-Archaic I/II, is notable for its unique domed vault construction and the presence of iron weapons, including a silver-studded iron sword, a large iron spearhead, and various arrowheads. This tomb, along with Tomb 77, stands out as one of only two tumuli known in the Salamis necropolis, signifying an individual of extraordinary rank. Tomb 77 is interpreted as a cenotaph for Nicocreon, the last king of Salamis, erected possibly by Demetrius Poliorcetes, serving as a political statement of inherited authority.
Beyond the elite burials, the Cellarka cemetery comprises numerous rock-cut tombs belonging to the general population, offering a contrasting perspective on ordinary mortuary practices.
Urban Development and Territorial Control: The city centre of Salamis featured a rampart and at least two sanctuaries, though their full extent and urban layout remain partially understood due to interrupted investigations. Excavations at Salamis-Campanopetra uncovered an 11th-century BC sanctuary, believed to be dedicated to a male bull-god, possibly an earlier form of the "Great God" of Salamis, later identified with Zeus. This sanctuary exhibited features of Late Bronze Age architectural traditions.
Salamis, particularly during the Cypro-Archaic period, formed one of the largest polities on the island, with its territory extending across most of the Mesaoria plain and the Karpas peninsula. While the precise boundaries of its kingdom during the Cypro-Classical period are difficult to ascertain definitively, it is estimated to have covered approximately three-tenths of the island, or about 2,700 square kilometres. The city's influence extended to areas like Chytroi and Akanthou, which may have been part of its territory. Chytroi, for instance, played a role in connecting Salamis to Anatolia, a region rich in silver and other metals. A significant water source for Salamis, the Kephalovryse spring near Chytroi, was likely exploited from the Neolithic period onwards.
The economic power of Salamis was considerable, stemming from its control over a vital port that facilitated the export of Cypriot copper and the import of essential commodities such as precious metals (gold, silver) and tin, crucial for bronze production. This strategic economic position fostered intense competition with other gateway communities on the eastern coast, such as Kition. The presence of Assyrian luxury goods in Salaminian tombs, possibly acquired through Phoenician trade networks, suggests a competitive display of wealth against Kition, where the stele of Sargon II was notably erected, rather than at Salamis.
Estimates of Salamis's population during the Cypro-Classical period, particularly around Evagoras's reign (early 4th century BC), suggest a range of 35,000–37,000 inhabitants within the urban centre. This substantial population size raises questions about the capacity of the surrounding land to sustain its alimentary needs through grain production, though specific data are limited.
The distribution of extra-urban sanctuaries provides insight into Salamis's territorial formation and influence. The dense network of such sanctuaries in central and eastern Cyprus, especially during the Cypro-Archaic period, is interpreted as a means by which the Salaminian basileis (kings) articulated social order and asserted territorial claims, particularly in negotiations with neighbouring polities like Idalion and Kition. The presence of specific terracotta figurine styles in the Mesaoria, attributed to Salaminian workshops, further attests to strong cultural ties and potential territorial control.
In terms of material culture, Salaminian workshops were distinctive, notably in their production of Bichrome Ware pottery from the Early Iron Age (11th century BC) onwards. This pottery, characterized by stylistic uniformity, suggests a homogeneous assemblage distributed across Salamis's vast territory, distinguishing it from, for example, the Paphian workshops which prioritized Black-on-Red (BoR) pottery.
Hellenistic and Roman Periods: Continuity and Transformation
Salamis maintained its prominence through the Hellenistic and Roman periods, even after Nea Paphos became the administrative centre of Ptolemaic Cyprus. The city experienced a significant reconstruction under Evagoras I (415–374/3 BC), a period of renewed vigour.
Under Ptolemaic rule, Salamis held a special position for royal representation and self-representation, despite losing its administrative function. Epigraphic evidence from Salamis highlights the widespread practice of the Ptolemaic ruler cult, with numerous statue pedestals bearing dedications to individual kings and queens, often found within public structures like the gymnasium. The gymnasium itself, mentioned in inscriptions as early as the first half of the 3rd century BC, was a key civic institution.
The Battle of Salamis in 306 BCE, fought off the Cypriot coast between the fleets of Antigonos I Monophthalmos and Ptolemy I Soter, was a momentous event. It represented a crucial struggle for naval and maritime hegemony over the eastern Mediterranean, particularly for control of Cyprus's maritime population and timber resources. Antigonos's victory, which solidified his naval dominance, prompted him to assume the title of king, underscoring the battle's profound political significance.
During the Roman period, Salamis became a prosperous self-governing city, benefiting from imperial peace and stability. Public buildings such as the gymnasium, theatre, and baths, largely preserved by sand that covered the city after its abandonment in the 7th century AD, created a spectacular archaeological site. The theatre, dating from the Augustan period, and Roman sculptures further attest to the city's grandeur.
Late Antiquity and Early Christian Salamis (Constantia)
The city underwent a profound transformation in Late Antiquity, evolving from a pagan centre to a significant early Christian city, known as Constantia. This period saw the construction of major Christian monuments, notably the Basilica of Saint Epiphanios, an impressive architectural work dating to the late 4th – early 5th centuries AD, initiated during the episcopacy of Epiphanios (367–403 AD).
The Basilica of Campanopetra, excavated by the French mission, represents another monumental Christian complex located near the sea at the southeastern end of Salamis. It is believed to have been built over earlier structures, potentially including the 11th-century BC male-god sanctuary. This basilica is possibly associated with Saint Barnabas, with some scholars suggesting it was the pilgrimage basilica founded by Anthemius around 488 AD to house the saint's relics. The sanctity of early Christian Salamis was deeply rooted in the memory of Saint Barnabas, who, according to hagiographical accounts, was born, preached, and was martyred in the city. This strong Christian identity also played a role in Salamis becoming the centre of the autocephaly of the Cypriot Church, asserting its independence from Antioch and Constantinople. Archaeological evidence also indicates the widespread practice of defacing pagan statuary, particularly the mutilation of exposed genitals on sculptures in public baths, reflecting the city's religious shift and Christian responses to pagan imagery.
Concluding Remarks on Research and Preservation
The archaeological landscape of Salamis, encompassing its various names and periods, represents a rich, albeit complex, narrative of Cypriot history. The meticulous excavations conducted by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus and the French mission prior to 1974 have provided an invaluable, if incomplete, record. The prompt publication of these findings, particularly by Karageorghis, ensured that the material remained accessible for global scholarly study and discussion.
However, the continued inaccessibility of the site since 1974 due to political circumstances poses a significant challenge to further research and understanding of its urban core. This situation has led to a geographical imbalance in archaeological research on the island, with studies concentrating more on the south and southwest. Despite these limitations, ongoing projects, such as the MuseCo's research on Salaminian pottery and UnSaLa-CY's work on extra-urban sanctuaries, continue to reinterpret and expand our understanding of Salamis's history. The challenges faced by Salamis underscore the broader issues of cultural heritage preservation in politically sensitive regions and the critical importance of international collaboration in safeguarding and studying the past. The legacy of Salamis continues to serve as a symbol of Cypriot identity and national pride, encouraging future generations of archaeologists to keep its memory alive and to advocate for renewed scholarly access.