Paphos

History of Paphos

The archaeological landscape of Paphos in southwestern Cyprus is a stratified palimpsest, revealing millennia of human activity. The name "Paphos" itself can refer to distinct but historically interconnected entities: the ancient city of Palaepaphos, identified with the modern village of Kouklia, and the later Hellenistic and Roman city of Nea Paphos, situated closer to the coast and commonly known today as Kato Paphos. Within this broader region, particularly at Kato Paphos, lies the prominent necropolis designated as the ‘Tombs of the Kings’. To understand Palaepaphos, one must grasp this dynamic geographical and chronological relationship, a testament to the enduring significance of this locale in Cypriot history.

Palaepaphos: The Ancient Heart

Palaepaphos (Kouklia), often referred to as "Old Paphos," stands approximately two kilometres inland from the current coastline, dominating the entrance to the Dhiarizos River valley. The modern village of Kouklia overlays much of this ancient settlement, making archaeological investigation complex yet rewarding. The site’s strategic position, enhanced by the steep flanks carved by the Dhiarizos and its tributary, the Vathyrkakas, offered clear views of the Troodos Mountains and the Mediterranean. This ancient prominence is perhaps best encapsulated by its legendary status as the birthplace of Aphrodite, a tradition reflected in the significant and widely renowned Sanctuary of the Cypriot Goddess, whose cult reaches far back into pre-classical times.

Prehistoric Foundations

The earliest traces of human presence in the Paphos region date back to the Aceramic Neolithic period. Sites such as Kholetria Ortos, located about ten kilometres inland north of Kouklia in the Xeropotamos River Valley, reveal evidence of human occupation around 7500 Cal BC. This large settlement, estimated to cover approximately 2.4 hectares, has yielded over 62,000 chipped stone artefacts, suggesting a substantial occupation. The Paphos District also contains Akrotiri Aetokremnos, often referred to as "Vulture Cliff," the earliest indisputable archaeological site on Cyprus, dating to the tenth millennium BCE. Located on the southern coast of the Akrotiri Peninsula, this collapsed rockshelter yielded evidence of mobile fisher-foragers who primarily hunted pygmy hippopotami. While Aetokremnos is not strictly Palaepaphos, it provides crucial context for the earliest human occupation within the broader Paphos region.

The Chalcolithic period (circa 3800–2300 BC) is well represented in the Paphos district, particularly by the Souskiou complex. Souskiou comprises a settlement and four distinct cemeteries, located 2.5 kilometres southwest of the modern (now abandoned) village. The sites of Souskiou Laona and Souskiou Vathyrkakas are especially important for their distinctive cruciform figurines, which are iconic images of the Middle Chalcolithic in southwestern Cyprus. Finds such as metal objects and faience beads at Souskiou indicate the first significant transmaritime relations with neighbouring mainland regions during this period. Another major Chalcolithic site in western Cyprus is Kissonerga-Mosphilia, approximately six kilometres north of Paphos, which demonstrates occupation spanning from the Late Neolithic to the beginning of the Bronze Age.

The Rise of a Bronze Age Polity

The Early and Middle Cypriot Bronze Age in the Paphos district has historically been less understood. However, spatial analyses have begun to shed light on settlement patterns from the third and second millennia BC, indicating an increase in site numbers during the transition from the Middle to Late Cypriot period. Palaepaphos truly gained prominence as a significant urban centre during the Late Bronze Age (circa 1650–1050 BC), often considered comparable to major eastern sites like Kition or Enkomi. Archaeological research at Kouklia-Palaepaphos has revealed the extent of its Late Cypriot occupation, functioning as a polity with a complex urban landscape.

A crucial contemporary site in the Paphos region during the Late Bronze Age is Maa-Palaeokastro, located approximately ten kilometres northwest of Paphos. This fortified settlement, dating to the Late Cypriot IIC-IIIA period (circa 1250 BC onwards), was destroyed by a violent fire around 1200 BC, then reoccupied before its final abandonment. Its defensive character and material culture suggest it was established by refugees from the Aegean and Asia Minor, possibly the "Sea Peoples," illustrating the region's dynamic role in broader Mediterranean interactions.

The Iron Age Kingdom and Aphrodite's Cult

The transition to the Early Iron Age (circa 1050–750 BC) at Palaepaphos is best understood through the cemetery at Palaepaphos-Skales. The large number of tombs and rich finds provide crucial insights into the Cypro-Geometric period. During the Iron Age, Palaepaphos developed into one of Cyprus's prominent city-kingdoms. Centralized monumental buildings from this period suggest the emergence of a well-structured polity, and epigraphic evidence points to the presence of Paphians throughout the Mediterranean. Historical texts mention kings of Paphos, such as Akestor and Stasiphilos, ruling in the late eighth or early seventh century BC.

The cult of Aphrodite at Palaepaphos continued to be a central feature throughout the Iron Age and into later periods. The ancient renown of her sanctuary attracted travellers and generated early archaeological interest. The sanctuary complex was also famously associated with the Persian siege ramp built during the Ionian revolt against Persia in 498 BC, a significant historical event with archaeological correlates at the site.

Nea Paphos: The Hellenistic and Roman Capital

A critical development in the history of Paphos was the foundation of Nea Paphos (Kato Paphos) at the end of the fourth century BC by the Ptolemies. This new city, strategically located on the coast, became the island’s capital and a vital hub for political and commercial control in the Eastern Mediterranean, effectively superseding the older inland settlement of Palaepaphos.

Nea Paphos hosts a wealth of Hellenistic and Roman archaeological remains. Foremost among these is the monumental necropolis popularly known as the ‘Tombs of the Kings’. Despite its name, this site housed the burials of the wealthy inhabitants of Nea Paphos. These impressive rock-cut tombs, some featuring Doric triglyphs carved into the bedrock, reflect a period of significant prosperity. Other notable structures at Kato Paphos include the elaborate mosaics of the Villa of Dionysos and the House of Theseus, and public structures like the Odéon and the Asklepieion.

A Legacy of Discovery

The archaeological investigation of the Paphos region has been a continuous process since the late 19th century. Various international missions, including early British and Swiss-German excavations, and later projects using systematic survey and interdisciplinary approaches like GIS, have contributed to our understanding of settlement patterns and the relationship between sites and their environment. Challenges persist, including extensive looting and modern development, but ongoing research continues to unveil the multifaceted history of Paphos.

In sum, Palaepaphos and its broader archaeological landscape embody the deep chronology and dynamic cultural shifts that characterize Cyprus. From the ephemeral encampments of the Epi-Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, through the development of a significant Late Bronze Age urban centre, to its flourishing as an Iron Age city-kingdom, and finally the establishment of the coastal metropolis of Nea Paphos, this region offers a compelling narrative of continuous human adaptation and societal evolution.