Kyrenia
A historic coastal city on the northern coast of Cyprus, with a long and complex history from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages through the Roman and Byzantine periods.
History of Kyrenia
The ancient city of Kyrenia, known today as Girne, is situated on the north-central coast of Cyprus at the base of the Pentadaktylos mountain range. This strategic coastal position has shaped its long and complex history, although certain periods of its occupation are less understood than those of other major Cypriot sites. For archaeologists, Kyrenia presents a compelling, and at times enigmatic, case study of human settlement over millennia.
The region's geology, a complex mix of sedimentary rocks like limestones, marls, chalks, and cherts, directly influenced the development of the city. These materials provided the essential resources for construction and craft, defining the material culture recovered from the site. The presence of chert was also important for tool production in prehistoric times, forming a key part of the discussion about the island's earliest inhabitants.
The Question of First Inhabitants
The story of Cyprus's earliest human occupation is a subject of ongoing academic discussion, and the Kyrenia region was once central to claims of a very ancient past. Historically, various surface finds of stone tools near Kyrenia were interpreted as evidence for an Upper Paleolithic, or pre-Neolithic, human presence. These materials, collected from areas including Khrysokava and near the modern town, led some researchers in the 1960s to suggest a vast inhabited strip dating back to Paleolithic times.
However, careful and systematic archaeological scrutiny has not supported these early assertions. Modern analysis of the lithic collections from Kyrenia has shown that many of the objects are not demonstrably cultural in origin. Those that were human-made lack convincing characteristics that would date them to the Paleolithic or even an early pre-Neolithic period. The contexts from which they were collected were often disturbed, including quarrying areas, making reliable dating impossible.
A stark contrast is found at Akrotiri Aetokremnos, a collapsed rockshelter on the southern coast of Cyprus. This is the oldest well-documented archaeological site on the island, with human activity firmly dated to the early 12th millennium cal BP (around 10,000 BCE). The site provides clear evidence for early seafaring people interacting with the island's now-extinct endemic fauna, like pygmy hippopotami. When the materials from Kyrenia are compared to the rigorously documented and contextualized artifacts from Akrotiri Aetokremnos, there is no resemblance.
Consequently, the current archaeological consensus is that there is no credible evidence for a Paleolithic presence in the Kyrenia region. The first accepted widespread human settlement on Cyprus began with the Aceramic Neolithic period, associated with the Khirokitia Culture, which started around the 7th millennium BCE. This was followed by the Ceramic Neolithic, or Sotira Culture, around 4500 BCE. While a Neolithic site was identified during a 1959 survey on the southern slope of the Kyrenia range, detailed information about this discovery remains limited.
The Bronze Age: A Flourishing Coastal Region
Human activity in the Kyrenia region became much more discernible and extensive during the Bronze Age (c. 2500–1050 BCE). Archaeological surveys conducted on the southern slopes of the Kyrenia range have located a significant number of Early and Middle Cypriot Bronze Age sites. The concentration of these settlements around 2000 BCE suggests a relatively dense population, a phenomenon that may have been linked to a more favorable water supply in antiquity than exists today.
Among these sites, Vasilia, located at the western end of the Kyrenia Mountain range, stands out. Vasilia is distinguished from other sites of the Philia phase (a transitional period between the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age) by the substantial quantities of metal artifacts recovered there. Alongside these metal goods were other exotic items, such as alabaster vases. This evidence suggests that Vasilia may have been a major center during this period, possibly acting as a gateway port for external trade and a key community for the distribution of goods throughout Cyprus. This highlights the early importance of Kyrenia's coastal settlements in wider interregional networks.
Further evidence for the period comes from the large and well-known cemeteries of Bellapais-Vounous and Lapithos-Vrysi-tou-Barba, both located within the Kyrenia Terrane. These extensive burial grounds provide important data on the mortuary practices, social structures, and material culture of the Early and Middle Cypriot communities in the region. Their contents have helped archaeologists build a detailed picture of Bronze Age life and death in northern Cyprus.
The Late Bronze Age (c. 1650-1050 BCE) was a time of significant transformation across Cyprus, characterized by the emergence of new types of monumental architecture and a general shift in settlement patterns towards the coast. However, the subsequent Early Iron Age (c. 1050-750 BCE) appears to have been a period of decline for many Cypriot centers. The number of known settlements across the island dwindled, with most evidence for this period coming from cemeteries rather than habitation sites. On the southern foothills of the Kyrenia range, only the sites of Dhikomo and Palekythro show certain evidence of continued occupation into the Early Iron Age.
An Obscure Urban Past: The Iron Age and Classical Antiquity
Despite its strategic location and long history of occupation, the urban development of Kyrenia itself during the Iron Age and later periods is not well documented, particularly when compared to cities like Salamis or Kition. Ancient tradition holds that the city was founded by Achaean settlers, led by Kepheus, after the Trojan War, which would place its origins around the end of the Late Bronze Age. However, historical records and archaeological evidence for the city as a major political entity are sparse.
What is known about Iron Age Kyrenia comes from scattered but significant finds. A Cypro-Geometric II tomb discovered in 1945 at a locality named "Sirinjia" contained pottery that was transferred to the Cyprus Museum. In the nearby village of Karmi, a Cypro-Archaic II tomb was found containing "White Painted V" and "Bichrome V" ceramics, including small amphorae, bowls, and juglets. These ceramic types are important for dating and understanding regional variations in Iron Age Cypriot culture. The Kyrenia district appears to have a relatively high concentration of such contextualized finds from the Cypro-Archaic period.
Excavations within the modern town of Girne have also revealed architectural remains, though systematic study has been difficult. In the "Chrysochorafon" quarter, archaeologists unearthed substantial walls built of large, regularly cut blocks. Pottery recovered from the trenches associated with these walls spans a broad chronological range, from the Archaic period all the way through the Byzantine era. This indicates a long-term, if not necessarily continuous, occupation of the site well into later antiquity.
Kyrenia's archaeological footprint continues into the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Excavations in the Reaticon quarter of Kyrenia in 1910-1911 uncovered Roman ruins and a sanctuary. These excavations yielded numerous terracottas and stone statuettes dating from the 6th to the 3rd centuries BCE. Further evidence of later occupation includes Byzantine-era jewelry found near the road to Nicosia in 1883. These finds suggest that Kyrenia, like many Cypriot settlements, experienced cycles of growth and transformation throughout its history, maintaining its role as a coastal center through changing political and economic landscapes.
The Archaeological Record of Kyrenia
The archaeological picture of Kyrenia remains incomplete, especially concerning its urban core. Since 1974, much of the archaeological research in Cyprus has been concentrated in the south and west of the island, leaving many significant northern sites, including Kyrenia, less thoroughly studied and published.
The available evidence, however, highlights Kyrenia's role as an important coastal hub with connections to broader Mediterranean networks, particularly during the Bronze Age. The wealth of early Bronze Age metal artifacts and imported goods at Vasilia points to the region's involvement in the island's developing economy and trade relationships. The distinctive pottery traditions found in its regional cemeteries provide valuable typological and chronological markers for the whole of Cypriot archaeology.
For later periods, while finds of tombs, architecture, and artifacts confirm continuous occupation through the Roman and Byzantine eras, the city's size, layout, and political status during the Iron Age and classical antiquity are still largely unknown. The history of Kyrenia is therefore a tale told through fragments—important cemeteries, a wealthy trade town, and scattered urban remains—that hint at a long and significant past awaiting fuller exploration.