Dhenia

The Prehistory of Dhenia

The archaeological site of Dhenia, known locally by the toponyms Kafkalla and Mali, is an important center for the study of Cypriot prehistory. Located in the Nicosia district on the northern bank of the Merikas River, the site is especially known for its extensive cemeteries, which were used over a long period from the Chalcolithic through the Bronze Age. These cemeteries provide a wealth of information about the island's cultural transitions, regional relationships, and mortuary practices.

Unfortunately, the site's history is marred by widespread clandestine excavations. This looting has complicated archaeological interpretation by removing many artifacts from their original context. Despite these challenges, official excavations and modern analyses have uncovered significant data, establishing Dhenia as a key reference for understanding the Cypriot Early and Middle Bronze Ages.

Geographical Setting

The site of Dhenia is located south of the modern village of the same name, in the central plain of Cyprus. Its position south of the Kyrenia mountain range gives it a different regional character from other well-known Bronze Age cemeteries like Lapithos and Vounous, which are on the north coast.

The main archaeological area, known as Kafkalla, is a plateau that extends approximately 700 meters east to west and 600 meters north to south. A second, smaller locale named Mali lies about 300 meters northeast of the village, with another related area, Kafkalla tis Malis, located a kilometer away. The presence of these distinct but related locales indicates that the ancient settlement and its associated cemeteries were extensive.

A History of Discovery and Looting

Dhenia has a long and troubled history of discovery, defined by the persistent problem of looting. For generations, clandestine digging in search of antiquities has plundered many of the tombs at Kafkalla. This activity, a recurring issue across Cyprus, destroys the context in which artifacts are found, erasing valuable information about their use and meaning. Although the Department of Antiquities has worked to monitor the site, a large number of objects from Dhenia have still made their way into private and public collections without proper archaeological documentation. This requires scholars to carefully reassess material that was recovered without scientific oversight.

In contrast to this uncontrolled digging, formal archaeological work has gradually built a more reliable picture of the site. In 1962, P. Åström and G. R. H. Wright published their findings from two Bronze Age tombs at Dhenia. Later, in 1985, Sophocles Hadjisavvas published a tomb from the Late Cypriot II period, extending the site's known chronology. The "Kafkalla" and "Mali" areas were further documented by I. and K. Nicolaou in 1988.

More recently, a project conducted between 2002 and 2004, along with a detailed publication of Dhenia's tomb groups by R. S. Frankel and J. M. Webb in 2007, has greatly advanced the understanding of its Bronze Age cemeteries. This systematic work helps to compensate for the information lost to looting and better integrates Dhenia into the broader archaeological story of Cyprus.

Chronology of Occupation

Archaeological evidence shows that Dhenia was occupied over a very long period, with human activity stretching from the Neolithic period into the Late Bronze Age.

The Earliest Inhabitants: Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods (c. 5250–2400 BC)

In 1961, villagers searching for tombs on the north bank of the Merikas River first identified evidence of a very early settlement at Dhenia Kafkalla. The pottery they found was primarily "Red-on-White" ware. This ceramic style is characteristic of the earliest phase of the Ceramic Neolithic in Cyprus (Neolithic Ib, c. 5250–4950 BC), with close parallels to material from the site of Troulli on the north coast. The discovery of forms like deep spouted bowls and large ovoid jars reinforces this early date. Along with the pottery, various andesite stone objects, including mortars and pestles, were found, suggesting that domestic food processing took place at the site.

The subsequent Chalcolithic period (c. 3800–2300 BC) was an era of new developments in Cyprus, including the first use of copper, new artistic styles, and early maritime trade. At Dhenia Kafkalla, the Chalcolithic settlement appears to have consisted of semi-subterranean dwellings. These structures were typically circular pits, about two to three meters in diameter, with wattle-and-daub superstructures supported by posts. Some may have been formed from adjoining circular units. This style of building is also seen at other Chalcolithic sites like Kalavasos-Pamboules. The material culture suggests this occupation was roughly contemporary with the earliest phases of the Erimi and Maa settlements.

The Philia Facies: A Period of Transition (c. 2500–2300 BC)

Dhenia is especially important for the evidence it provides of the Philia Facies, a cultural phase that marks the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age. This period, dated to the mid-third millennium BC, is not well-represented in the archaeological record of Cyprus, and few sites have been thoroughly published. The identification of tombs at Dhenia containing Philia-period material is therefore very valuable. This material shows a distinct shift in pottery styles and other artifacts, signaling changes in culture and possibly social organization that paved the way for the full Bronze Age.

The Bronze Age (c. 2300–1050 BC)

The main period of activity at Dhenia's cemeteries was during the Early Cypriot (EC) and Middle Cypriot (MC) periods. Tombs from the Early Bronze Age have been identified, providing glimpses into the burial customs of the time. One tomb was a shallow pit with two circular cavities, which contained small Black Polished incised bowls; its small size suggests it may have been a child's grave. Another EC tomb, a large and deep circular pit, contained several large Red Polished vessels and a bronze dagger, an artifact that points to the presence of metal goods in funerary contexts.

The cemeteries continued to be used throughout the Middle Cypriot (MC) period. The pottery from this phase includes White Painted wares, which are characteristic of the era. The site is now a major reference for MC tomb groups, thanks in part to publications of material held in collections like the University of New England Museum of Antiquities. Although many of these tombs were disturbed and had to be excavated quickly, they have yielded fragmentary but significant assemblages.

Dhenia’s use extended into the Late Cypriot (LC) period. The publication of a Late Cypriot II tomb in 1985 confirmed the site’s long history. This places Dhenia within the network of sites that were active during the height of the island's copper production and international trade, although the extent of its participation in these networks is still being studied.

Funerary Customs and Social Structure

As a major necropolis, Dhenia offers valuable information about Bronze Age society. The tombs, even those disturbed by looting, allow for the study of burial rites and social organization. The presence of a large bronze dagger in an Early Cypriot tomb, for instance, suggests that some individuals were buried with items indicating wealth or status.

The grave goods from Dhenia display a rich material culture. Among the recovered pottery are numerous askoi (vessels with a side spout), some with incised decoration and others with zoomorphic (animal-like) features. Jugs with distinctive forms and intricate decoration have also been found. Even when recovered from looted tombs, these vessels can be painstakingly reconstructed, offering crucial data for dating and stylistic analysis.

The study of mortuary practices at sites like Dhenia Kafkalla and Mali helps to build a picture of social and political relationships in Bronze Age Cyprus. By comparing the types of grave goods found at inland sites like Dhenia with those at coastal centers, archaeologists can investigate how prestige items were distributed and how different regions interacted.

Dhenia in a Wider Cypriot Context

Dhenia's location and long chronological sequence make it a useful site for comparison with other settlements, helping to clarify island-wide cultural developments. Its Bronze Age record, particularly from the Middle Cypriot period, is often studied alongside the settlements of Marki-Alonia and Alambra to understand daily life, architecture, and material culture in prehistoric Cyprus.

The site also contributes to the study of the "Philia culture," the transitional phase between the Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age. This culture is marked by distinctive pottery and metallurgy that show some connections to mainland Anatolia but quickly evolved into uniquely Cypriot forms. Dhenia, along with other sites like Kissonerga-Mylouthkia and Kalavasos-Ayious, provides key evidence for this formative period.

During the Late Cypriot period (c. 1650–1050 BC), Cyprus underwent significant changes in its settlement patterns as the copper trade flourished and new urban centers like Episkopi-Bamboula and Alassa emerged. Dhenia’s continued use into this era, confirmed by the LCII tomb, places it within the broader story of how different regions adapted to the economic and social dynamics of the Late Bronze Age.

Interpreting a Disturbed Site

The archaeological study of Dhenia faces significant challenges, primarily due to the long history of illicit digging. Because so much material has been removed from its original stratigraphic context, detailed interpretations of the site's development and its social practices are difficult. Furthermore, early publications, while valuable, often provided limited detail on tomb architecture or the arrangement of skeletal remains.

Despite these difficulties, modern, systematic projects have greatly improved the archaeological record for Dhenia. The work of scholars like Frankel and Webb, who have meticulously documented and published material from the site, allows for more robust comparisons with well-excavated sites. This research helps reconstruct Dhenia's role within the larger framework of Cypriot prehistory. Continued investigation of the site, with a focus on locating and excavating any remaining undisturbed contexts, is needed to further clarify the development of early societies on the island.