Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos

Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos: A Pivotal Site for Understanding Early Holocene Cyprus

The archaeological site of Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos, also known by variants such as Agia Varvara-Asprokremnos, Ayia Varvara Aprokremnos, Ayia Varvara Pervolia, Ayia Varvara Poupes, and Agia Varvara-Sykarouthkia, represents a significant locality in the study of Cypriot prehistory. Situated in the Nicosia district, within the eastern foothills of the Troodos mountains and east of the Gialias River, between the modern villages of Ayia Varvara and Mathiati, this site holds a crucial position in understanding the island's early human occupation. For scholars of Cypriot and Levantine archaeology, Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos is noteworthy not only for its distinct chronological placement but also for the insights it provides into the nature of early human adaptation on the island, particularly regarding technological shifts, subsistence strategies, and early trans-regional interactions. This article will delineate the site's context within Cypriot prehistory, detail the archaeological investigations conducted, present its key findings, and discuss its broader implications for our understanding of the Early Neolithic in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Chronological and Geographical Context of Early Cypriot Prehistory

To appreciate the significance of Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos, one must first understand the broader chronological framework of early human presence on Cyprus.

The Late Epipalaeolithic: The Akrotiri Phase

Prior to recent discoveries, the earliest well-documented human occupation on Cyprus was the Akrotiri Phase, typified by the site of Akrotiri Aetokremnos ("Vulture Cliff" or "Site E"). This small, collapsed rockshelter is perched precariously on a cliff some 40 meters above the Mediterranean Sea on the southern coast of the Akrotiri Peninsula. Discovered by amateur archaeologists, initial surface finds included bones of pygmy hippopotami, marine shells, and chipped stone artifacts. The site underwent scientific excavation starting in 1988.

Akrotiri Aetokremnos is securely dated by over two dozen radiocarbon determinations to the early 12th millennium calibrated Before Present (cal B.P.), approximately 10th millennium BCE, making it one of the most reliably dated pre-Neolithic sites on any Mediterranean island. This chronology firmly established human occupation of Cyprus at this early date, challenging previous notions that initial settlement was solely during the Aceramic Neolithic period around 6500–7000 BCE.

A primary controversy surrounding Akrotiri Aetokremnos centers on the association of cultural materials with the remains of extinct endemic Pleistocene fauna, particularly the pygmy hippopotamus (Phanourios minutus). While critics initially questioned the cultural origin and contemporaneity of human activity with these faunal remains, particularly in Stratum 4 which yielded most hippo bones, excavators maintain that Strata 2 and 4, both containing artifacts, faunal remains, and features like hearths, represent cultural activities separated by a short, unmeasurable chronological span. The evidence suggests that the occupants of Aetokremnos were mobile fisher-foragers who primarily subsisted by hunting. The site's unique preservation, stratified deposits, and presence of burned bones and artifacts strongly support a human-hippo connection. Other potential Late Epipalaeolithic sites, such as Akamas Aspros and Ayia Napa Nissi Beach, have also been identified, showing similar lithic assemblages, although their precise dating and nature of occupation require further substantiation. Vretsia Roudias, an inland site in the Troodos foothills, also shows promise for contemporaneity with Aetokremnos, further diversifying the geographic scope of this early phase.

The Cypro-PPNA: Bridging the Gap

Following the Akrotiri Phase, a significant chronological gap existed in the archaeological record of Cyprus, spanning roughly from 8500 to 7000/6500 BCE, before the onset of the main Aceramic Neolithic. This period, termed the Cypro-Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (Cypro-PPNA), has only recently begun to be investigated more intensely through projects like the Elaborating Early Neolithic Cyprus (EENC). The aim of these investigations is to explore the nature of this early occupation, which is increasingly believed to have been continuous since 10,000 BCE, and to understand the processes that led to the later colonization of the island by early farming communities.

Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos is one of the pivotal sites for understanding this Cypro-PPNA period. Its excavation has provided concrete evidence that fills this perceived chronological void, demonstrating human presence and activities between the Late Epipalaeolithic Akrotiri Phase and the more well-known Cypro-PPNB.

The Cypro-PPNB (Early Aceramic Neolithic)

The Cypro-PPNB, or Early Aceramic Neolithic, represents a subsequent phase characterized by more substantial and often sedentary settlements, with an economy increasingly based on agriculture and animal husbandry, including introduced non-endemic fauna like fallow deer, caprines, pig, and cattle. Key sites from this period include Parekklisha Shillourokambos, which spans over a millennium from the end of the 9th to the 8th millennium BCE. This site is crucial for understanding the transition to agriculture and the development of early Neolithic characteristics. Kalavasos Tenta, initially thought to be later, also shows early Aceramic phases contemporary with Shillourokambos. Akanthou Arkoysko, on the northern coast, presents unique sub-angular architectural remains, deviating from the typical circular structures, and shows evidence of Anatolian obsidian imports, suggesting mainland connections. Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis, another upland site like Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos, provides evidence for a mixed economy and unusual circular stone structures, further diversifying the picture of early Cypriot settlement.

In summary, Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos fits into the Cypro-PPNA, providing crucial data for a period that was previously poorly understood. It links the highly mobile hunter-forager societies of the Late Epipalaeolithic with the emerging agricultural communities of the Cypro-PPNB, demonstrating a more complex and continuous sequence of early human adaptation on Cyprus.

Excavations and Research at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos

The site of Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos was selected for intensive investigation due to initial observations suggesting a substantial early entity with parallels to PPNA site assemblages on the mainland. The research, conducted under the banner of the Elaborating Early Neolithic Cyprus (EENC) project, involved scholars such as C. McCartney, S.W. Manning, S. Rosendahl, and S.T. Stewart.

Archaeological fieldwork at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos involved systematic surface surveys to identify lithic scatters, followed by excavations. Over five seasons, an area of 203 m² has been investigated. Radiocarbon dating has precisely placed the primary occupation of the site in the very late 10th to the mid-9th millennia calibrated BC, specifically around 8850/8750–8650/8550 Cal BC. This firmly establishes its Cypro-PPNA affiliation and its role in bridging the chronological gap between the Akrotiri Phase and the Cypro-PPNB.

The nature of occupation at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos appears to have been ephemeral and short-lived, indicative of a "well-organized formal camp" rather than a permanent settlement. Despite its upland location, away from the coast, the site provided good access to chert sources and water supply, which were likely key factors in its selection.

Key Findings and Interpretations

The excavations at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos have yielded a range of cultural materials and features that shed light on the activities and cultural affiliations of its early inhabitants.

Architectural Features

Evidence for structures at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos includes ephemeral remains, such as a semi-subterranean structure designated F300. This feature indicates at least three phases of activity: its initial construction and occupation, followed by destruction and abandonment, and then its deliberate reuse as a refuse pit. Other ephemeral features, interpreted as channels and small "pit" features, likely functioned as "camping hearths," suggesting short-term activities. These architectural forms share similarities with contemporary structures observed on the Levantine mainland, reinforcing cultural connections across the region. The shallow occupation deposits and the absence of burials or identifiable midden deposits, however, support the interpretation of a seasonal or periodic occupation, rather than a fully sedentary village.

Lithic Assemblage

The lithic assemblage from Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos is substantial, comprising large quantities of chipped stone tools and debitage. The recovered material includes evidence for diverse tasks such as quarrying, knapping, core reduction, and other forms of tool production. The lithic industry at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos shows similarities to the Akrotiri Aetokremnos repertoire, as well as to material from other early sites like Ayia Napa Nissi Beach and Akamas Aspros, hinting at a cultural continuity in lithic traditions from the Late Epipalaeolithic through the Cypro-PPNA. Notably, there is an emphasis on bladelet and microlithic production at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos, which distinguishes it further from other potential early sites and links it more closely to Aetokremnos. The abundance of lithic artifacts indicates extensive flint knapping activities at the site.

Ground Stone Tools and Vessels

A significant quantity of ground stone tools and vessel fragments has been recovered from Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos. These finds provide evidence for the production of stone vessels at the site itself. This aspect highlights the inhabitants' engagement in specialized manufacturing activities beyond simple tool use, suggesting a level of craftsmanship and resource exploitation.

Faunal Remains and Subsistence

Analysis of the faunal remains from Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos indicates that pigs were predominant in the assemblage, with suggestions that small pigs were hunted during this period. This provides important data on the economic base of Cypro-PPNA communities, showing a reliance on wild resources through hunting, a characteristic that differentiates them from the later Cypro-PPNB sites where domesticated plants and animals became increasingly prevalent. This mixed economy, supplemented by gathering, along with the artifact repertoire, suggests that Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos was a substantial site for its time.

Symbolic Representation and Mainland Connections

Of particular interest are the findings of two shaft-straighteners with incised lattice patterns at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos. These artifacts are significant as they offer early evidence of shared systems of symbolic representation between Cyprus and the wider Early Neolithic of the Near East. This points to clear interaction with the adjacent mainland, a crucial element for understanding the cultural development of early insular communities. Such observations, alongside parallels in lithic industry and architectural forms, consistently demonstrate connections with contemporary mainland cultures. The detection of Anatolian obsidian lithics at sites like Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis and Akanthou Arkoysko further underscore these trans-marine interactions.

Broader Significance and Contribution

Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos’s contribution to Cypriot archaeology and the broader study of early human migration and settlement in the Mediterranean is multi-faceted:

Filling the Chronological Gap: The site provides definitive archaeological evidence for the Cypro-PPNA, a period previously lacking substantial documentation. This fills a critical gap between the earliest transient foragers of the Akrotiri Phase and the more established agricultural communities of the Cypro-PPNB, thereby creating a more complete and continuous narrative of human occupation on Cyprus.
Understanding Early Human Dispersal and Adaptation: As one of the few early upland sites in Cyprus, Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos challenges the traditional focus on coastal settlements for the earliest periods. Its presence, alongside sites like Vretsia Roudias and Kritou Marottou Ais Yiorkis, expands our understanding of diversified early Holocene landscape exploitation and adaptation strategies on islands. The site offers insights into how mobile forager/hunter communities utilized inland resources, suggesting that islands could support sustained pre-domestic settlement.
Insights into Economic Transition: The faunal assemblage dominated by hunted pigs at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos highlights a pre-agricultural economy, contrasting with the later emergence of domesticated species in the Cypro-PPNB. This provides valuable data for studying the economic trajectory of early Cypriots as they transitioned towards agriculture and animal husbandry, a process critical for the later establishment of sedentary farming communities.
Evidence for Cultural Continuity and External Connections: The similarities in lithic technology between Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos, Akrotiri Aetokremnos, and later Aceramic Neolithic sites, coupled with shared symbolic representations (e.g., incised shaft-straighteners) and imported materials, suggest a degree of cultural continuity and ongoing interaction with mainland Near Eastern cultures. This refutes earlier "backwater" theories that posited Cyprus as isolated from mainland developments in its early phases.
Nature of Early Settlement: The ephemeral nature of the structures and the interpretation of Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos as a "well-organized formal camp" offer insights into the varied forms of early human settlement. It demonstrates that early occupations were not necessarily fully sedentary villages but could involve specialized activity areas used periodically or seasonally by mobile groups. This nuanced understanding is crucial for interpreting archaeological scatters from these early periods.

Conclusion

Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos is a critical site for delineating the complexity of early human presence in Cyprus. Its investigations have demonstrably filled a significant chronological void, providing an unprecedented window into the Cypro-PPNA period. The archaeological evidence from Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos illuminates the adaptive strategies of early Holocene hunter-foragers, their technological traditions, subsistence economies focused on wild resources like pigs, and their undeniable connections with the broader Near Eastern cultural sphere. The site's upland location, along with its specialized activities, further enriches our understanding of the diverse ways in which early populations interacted with and exploited the Cypriot landscape. As research continues, Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos will undoubtedly remain a cornerstone for discussions on the beginnings of Neolithic life and trans-marine dispersal in the Mediterranean, continually challenging and refining our models of prehistoric island colonization.