It is believed that Hattusa's final king, Suppiluliuma II, may have evacuated the city with his court before its ultimate destruction, potentially relocating to a pre-arranged seat in south-eastern Anatolia or northern Syria. This possibility raises questions about direct dynastic continuity into the Neo-Hittite period.

The justification for the term 'Neo-Hittite' rests on several characteristics shared by these Iron Age kingdoms:

• Location: Many resided in the region called 'Hatti' in Iron Age Assyrian, Urartian, and Hebrew sources – essentially the south-eastern territories of the former Hittite empire.
• Script and Language: The Luwian language, written in a hieroglyphic script, was used for monumental inscriptions in most of these kingdoms. Luwian had likely become a predominant language in the Late Bronze Age Hittite empire, and its continued use provides a significant link.
• Royal Names: Some rulers bore Luwian names or names associated with Late Bronze Age Hittite kings (like Suppiluliuma, Muwatalli, Hattusili), although the significance attached to these names is debated.
• Cultural Links: Material culture, particularly iconography and architecture, shows continuity and adaptation of Late Bronze Age Hittite traditions.

However, the identity of the Neo-Hittite populations is complex. While large-scale migrations of Luwian-speakers from Anatolia following the empire's collapse are often hypothesised as the genesis of these kingdoms, the evidence is not conclusive. Luwian-speaking populations might already have been present in Syria during the Late Bronze Age, possibly settling after Suppiluliuma I established viceregal seats at Carchemish and Aleppo. The Neo-Hittite kingdoms were likely multi-ethnic, incorporating indigenous Syrian peoples and, increasingly, Aramaean groups who migrated into the region from the late second millennium onwards. This blend, particularly in Syria, has led some scholars to use the term 'Syro-Hittite'. The persistence of the Luwian script likely reflects its status as a traditional language of royalty rather than necessarily the commonly spoken language.

Emergence and Early Kingdoms (12th–11th Centuries)

The aftermath of the Hittite empire's collapse created a power vacuum in Syria and Palestine. Into this setting, the Neo-Hittite kingdoms began to form, likely within decades of Hattusa's fall.  

The earliest and arguably most important Neo-Hittite kingdom emerged at Carchemish on the Euphrates. Fortuitously escaping the widespread destruction of the era, Carchemish saw a continuation of Hittite administration under Kuzi-Teshub, the son of the last known Hittite viceroy, Talmi-Teshub. Recognizing the end of the central regime in Hattusa, Kuzi-Teshub assumed the title "Great King," positioning Carchemish as the successor to the fallen empire. His realm initially seems to have encompassed territories along the Euphrates, including the regions of Malatya and Kummuh. Early efforts focused on reconstruction and resettlement of devastated lands, possibly continued by successors like the hypothetical Ir-Teshub. The use of the "Great King" title persisted at Carchemish for potentially two centuries, reflecting its early pre-eminence.

Located north of Carchemish, Malatya was ruled by Kuzi-Teshub's grandsons, Runtiya and Arnuwanti. It may have begun as a sub-kingdom established by Kuzi-Teshub but likely gained independence early on, possibly peacefully, given the rulers' continued acknowledgement of their grandfather as "Great King". Runtiya's inscriptions mention city restoration and resettlement efforts.

The extensive kingdom initially ruled from Carchemish likely fragmented relatively early into smaller, autonomous states like Malatya and Kummuh. This political landscape was encountered by the resurgent Assyrian kingdom under Tiglath-pileser I (1114–1076). After securing his northern and eastern borders against groups like the Mushki and the Nairi peoples, Tiglath-pileser turned west around his fifth regnal year. Driven perhaps by the desire for resources like Lebanese cedar and the prestige of reaching the Mediterranean, he campaigned through Syria. His operations appear largely focused on gathering tribute rather than direct conquest. He received submission from Phoenician cities like Byblos and Sidon and notably imposed tributary status on Ini-Teshub, "king of Hatti," almost certainly the then-ruler of Carchemish. He also received tribute from Malatya (Milidia), then ruled perhaps by Allumari. Following Tiglath-pileser I's reign, Assyria entered a period of decline, leaving the Neo-Hittite and emerging Aramaean states to evolve largely undisturbed for nearly two centuries. This period likely saw the consolidation of kingdoms like Gurgum, Patin, Hamath, and the Tabalian states, although direct evidence before the 9th century is scarce.

Subjection to Assyria (10th–9th Centuries)

The resurgence of Assyria, beginning under Ashur-dan II (934–912) and intensifying under Adad-nirari II (911–891) and Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–884), set the stage for renewed Assyrian involvement west of the Euphrates. It was Ashurnasirpal II (883–859) who led the first major western campaign since Tiglath-pileser I.

Ashurnasirpal II's Campaign (c. 870 BCE): After consolidating control over the middle Euphrates by suppressing rebellions and subjugating the Aramaean state of Bit-Adini under its ruler Ahuni, Ashurnasirpal crossed the Euphrates. His campaign largely mirrored Tiglath-pileser I's route, focusing on securing tribute.

• Carchemish: King Sangara submitted without resistance, providing enormous tribute including precious metals, furniture, adolescent girls, and military reinforcements. Other northern rulers likely paid tribute as well.
• Patin (Unqi): Ashurnasirpal advanced into Patin, securing the submission first of Hazazu and then the capital Kinalua after intimidating King Lubarna. The tribute demanded was immense. He also received tribute from Gusi of the Yahanites (Bit-Agusi) while in Kinalua.
• Luash: Setting up a base at Aribua in southern Patin, Ashurnasirpal encountered resistance only from the land of Luash. His forces crushed the opposition, destroyed its cities, and impaled captured soldiers.
• Phoenicia & Timber: News of Luash's fate ensured the submission of the Phoenician cities further south, including Arwad, Sidon, Byblos, and Tyre. Ashurnasirpal reached the Mediterranean, performed rituals, and harvested timber from the Amanus range for his building projects at Nimrud (Kalhu), particularly the North-West Palace. He bypassed the powerful kingdom of Hamath, possibly having secured its neutrality.

Ashurnasirpal's campaign reasserted Assyrian power but did not involve annexation. It relied on tribute and the threat of force, leaving the region ripe for future resistance.

Shalmaneser III's Campaigns (858–824 BCE): Ashurnasirpal's son, Shalmaneser III, pursued western expansion much more aggressively, conducting numerous campaigns across the Euphrates. He faced greater resistance, often from coalitions of Syrian states.

• First Campaign (858 BCE): Shalmaneser first targeted Ahuni of Bit-Adini again, defeating him but failing to capture him or his capital, Til Barsip. After destroying other Adini cities, he crossed the Euphrates, receiving tribute from Hattusili I of Kummuh and Muwatalli II of Gurgum. Near Lutibu in Sam'al, he was confronted by a northern coalition (Ahuni of Bit-Adini, Sangara of Carchemish, Hayyanu of Sam'al, Suppiluliuma of Patin). Shalmaneser claimed victory, but the coalition likely withdrew rather than being destroyed. The allies regrouped under Suppiluliuma near Alimush in Patin, joined by forces from Adanawa (King Kate), Hilakku (King Pihirim), Yasbuq, and Yahan (King Adanu). Shalmaneser defeated this larger alliance as well, securing temporary control over the region. He reached the Mediterranean and erected stelae .
• Subjugation of Bit-Adini (857–856 BCE): Shalmaneser returned the next year, again targeting Ahuni. He attacked Bit-Adini, destroying cities but again failing to capture Til Barsip immediately . He secured renewed tribute from Carchemish (Sangara), Sam'al (Hayyanu), and Patin (now Halparuntiya), as well as Kummuh (Hattusili I). In 856, Shalmaneser finally captured Til Barsip, although Ahuni escaped across the Euphrates. Shalmaneser converted the city into an Assyrian stronghold, renaming it Kar-Shalmaneser and settling Assyrians there. The following year (855), he pursued Ahuni to his mountain refuge Shittamrat, defeated his forces, and captured him, deporting him and his surviving men to Assyria. This eliminated Bit-Adini as an independent state and secured a crucial bridgehead for Assyria.
• The Battle of Qarqar (853 BCE): Shalmaneser then turned south towards Hamath. After taking northern Hamathite cities, he was met at Qarqar by a large southern coalition led by Urhilina (Irhuleni) of Hamath and Hadadezer (Adad-idri) of Damascus. The alliance included significant forces from Israel (King Ahab), contingents from Phoenician cities (Byblos, Irqata, Arwad, Usanatu, Shianu), token support from Egypt (Musri), Arab camels, and troops from Beth-Rehob (Soba). Shalmaneser claimed a bloody victory, but the coalition leaders survived, and the alliance regrouped.
• Later Campaigns & Collapse of Southern Coalition: After campaigns elsewhere, Shalmaneser faced the southern coalition again in 849 and 848, claiming victories each time but failing to destroy it. He also campaigned again in Carchemish and Bit-Agusi in these years. The final confrontation occurred in 845; Shalmaneser again claimed victory but seemingly without decisive results. The alliance dissolved shortly after, likely following the death of Hadadezer of Damascus and the accession of the usurper Hazael (c. 842 BCE). Shalmaneser campaigned against Hazael in 841 and 838, defeating him but failing to take Damascus. Hazael, however, went on to build a significant empire in southern Syria and Palestine.
• Anatolian Campaigns (839–831 BCE): Shalmaneser campaigned repeatedly against Adanawa (Que), ruled by Kate, possibly at the request of Kilamuwa of Sam'al who felt threatened by Kate. Shalmaneser invaded Adanawa four times (839, 833, 832, 831), capturing cities like Lusanda and Tarsus, and eventually deposed Kate, replacing him with his brother Kirri. In 836, he campaigned into Tabal, defeating Tuwati I of 'Tabal Proper', receiving tribute from 20 other Tabalian kings, extracting silver and alabaster from the mountains, and securing the submission of Puhame of Hupishna. He also received tribute from Lalli of Malatya in 835.

Shalmaneser III significantly extended Assyrian influence and military presence west of the Euphrates, encountering and eventually overcoming substantial resistance through repeated campaigns. While largely maintaining the tributary system, his actions, particularly the elimination of Bit-Adini, paved the way for more direct control in the future. His later campaigns were often led by his commander-in-chief, Dayyan-Ashur, who suppressed the coup in Patin in 831. Assyria's involvement in the west temporarily waned after Shalmaneser due to internal troubles.

Adad-nirari III (810–783 BCE): Assyria resumed western campaigns under Adad-nirari III. In 805, he crossed the Euphrates, possibly responding to an appeal from Suppiluliuma of Kummuh against Halparuntiya III of Gurgum. He defeated a northern Syrian coalition led by Attar-shumki I of Arpad at Paqarhubunu and redefined the Kummuh-Gurgum border. Adad-nirari also campaigned against Damascus, ruled then by 'Mari' (either Hazael or his son Bar-Hadad II), conquering the kingdom and receiving substantial tribute. The exact date is debated (803? or 796?). Despite this, Damascus under Bar-Hadad II soon led another coalition (including Arpad) against Hamath (under Zakur) around 800 BCE. Adad-nirari, possibly via Shamshi-ilu, seems to have intervened, potentially redrawing the Arpad-Hamath border in Arpad's favour (Antakya stele) to secure Attar-shumki's cooperation or neutrality. Adad-nirari's last recorded western action was a campaign 'as far as Mansuate' in 796 BCE. The commander Shamshi-ilu played a prominent role throughout this period, acting as the king's agent in military and diplomatic affairs in the west.

Absorption by Assyria (8th Century)

The period following Adad-nirari III saw a relative decline in Assyrian activity in the west, perhaps due to internal instability and the rising power of Urartu. Urartu, under kings like Argishti I and Sarduri II, expanded westward, even subjugating Malatya and Kummuh for a time. Arpad remained a center of anti-Assyrian sentiment, likely allied with Urartu. Sporadic Assyrian campaigns occurred (e.g., against Damascus in 773 by Shamshi-ilu, Hatarikka in 772, 765, 755 by Ashur-dan III, and Arpad in 754 by Ashur-nirari V), but Assyrian authority remained tenuous. Ashur-nirari V secured a loyalty oath from Mati'ilu of Arpad, aiming to isolate him from Urartu.

Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BCE): Tiglath-pileser III came to power after a rebellion in Nimrud and initiated a vigorous policy of reconquest and administrative reform, notably the conversion of troublesome tributary states into directly ruled provinces.

• Defeat of Urartu-Arpad Alliance (743 BCE): His first major western campaign targeted the alliance led by Sarduri II of Urartu and Mati'ilu of Arpad, which included Malatya (Sulumal), Gurgum (Tarhulara), and Kummuh (Kushtashpi). Tiglath-pileser won a decisive victory in Kummuh . He pardoned the Neo-Hittite kings, reinstating them as tributaries, but pursued the subjugation of Arpad.
• Fall of Arpad (740 BCE): After a three-year siege, Arpad fell. Mati'ilu was deposed, and Arpad became Assyria's first province west of the Euphrates.
• Provincialization of Patin (Unqi) (738 BCE): King Tutammu rebelled and was swiftly deposed by Tiglath-pileser. Patin was annexed as the province of Kullania.
• Hamath Divided (738 BCE): A rebellion in northern Hamath led by Azriyau was crushed. Tiglath-pileser annexed the northern districts (including Hatarikka) as Assyrian provinces (Simirra, Hatarikka), leaving the southern part under the loyal (?) King Eni'ilu.
• Tributary List (738 BCE): Tiglath-pileser's lists document his extensive control, including the Neo-Hittite kings Kushtashpi (Kummuh), Sulumal (Malatya), Wasusarma (Tabal), Ushhiti (Atuna), Urballa/Warpalawa (Tuwana), Tuhamme (Ishtuanda), Uirime (Hupishna), Pisiri (Carchemish), Tarhulara (Gurgum), Panamuwa II (Sam'al), alongside rulers of Damascus, Samaria, Tyre, Byblos, Que (Adanawa), Kaska, and Arabian tribes.
• Subjugation of Tabal (c. 730 BCE): Wasusarma of 'Tabal Proper' continued using the title "Great King," provoking Tiglath-pileser to depose him and install Hulli.
• Damascus Campaign (733–732 BCE): Rasyan (Rezin) of Damascus led a final anti-Assyrian coalition (including Israel, Tyre, Philistia). After Rasyan attacked Judah, King Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-pileser. Tiglath-pileser defeated the coalition, besieged Damascus for two years, captured it, executed Rasyan, and annexed the kingdom. He also intervened in Israel, supporting Hoshea's usurpation of the throne from Pekah.
• Babylonia: Tiglath-pileser intervened in Babylonia in 729, deposing a usurper and proclaiming himself king, instituting a "double monarchy".

Sargon II (721–705 BCE): Sargon II vigorously continued the provincialization policy, often using mass deportations to break local resistance.

• Fall of Samaria & Hamath (720 BCE): Sargon faced immediate rebellion led by Yaubidi of Hamath, joined by Samaria, Arpad, Simirra, and Damascus. Sargon crushed the revolt at Qarqar, executed Yaubidi, and annexed Hamath. Samaria also fell definitively, ending the kingdom of Israel; deportations followed.
• Fall of Carchemish (717 BCE): King Pisiri was accused of plotting with Mita (Midas) of Phrygia. Fearful of a Phrygian foothold west of the Euphrates and potential alliances with Urartu, Sargon acted preemptively. He captured Carchemish, deported Pisiri and his court, annexed the kingdom, and resettled it. This marked the end of the first and most prominent Neo-Hittite kingdom.
• Conflicts in Tabal (718–712 BCE): Sargon faced challenges from Phrygia under Mita, who sought influence over Assyria's Tabalian tributaries. In 718, Sargon deposed Kiakki (Kiyakiya) of Shinuhtu for conspiring with Mita, giving his territory to Kurti of Atuna. Around 713, Ambaris of Bit-Burutash (who ruled Tabal Proper plus additions, including Hilakku, and was Sargon's son-in-law) also defected, likely under pressure from Mita and Rusa I's successor in Urartu, Argishti II. Sargon deported Ambaris and annexed Bit-Burutash and Hilakku under a governor. Kurti of Atuna, who had briefly allied with Mita, quickly resubmitted to Sargon.
• Assyrian Reorganization (c. 713 BCE): Following Ambaris's removal, Sargon likely appointed Ashur-sharru-usur as governor based in Adanawa (Que), overseeing Bit-Burutash, Hilakku, and possibly Tuwana. The long-reigning kings Warpalawa of Tuwana and Awariku of Adanawa were probably retained as puppet rulers. Sam'al under Bar-Rakib remained loyal until his death (c. 713), after which it too was likely provincialized peacefully.
• Final Annexations (712–708 BCE): Malatya under Tarhunazi rebelled in 712, resulting in its destruction, the king's deportation, and the dismemberment of the kingdom, with part becoming a province and Malatya city given to Muwatalli of Kummuh. In 711, Muwatalli III of Gurgum assassinated his father Tarhulara; Sargon deposed the usurper and annexed Gurgum as the province of Marqas. Finally, in 708, Muwatalli of Kummuh, despite previous favour, was accused of plotting with Argishti II of Urartu. Sargon invaded, Muwatalli fled, and Kummuh was annexed and resettled. This marked the effective end of the independent Neo-Hittite kingdoms.
• Assyrian-Phrygian Entente (c. 709 BCE): Around 709, Mita of Phrygia, perhaps pressured by Cimmerian threats, sought peace with Sargon. He intercepted envoys sent by Awariku of Adanawa (Que) to Argishti II of Urartu and handed them over to the Assyrian governor Ashur-sharru-usur. Sargon responded favourably, releasing Phrygian prisoners. This accord aimed to stabilize the region against local resistance and external threats like the Cimmerians. Sargon was killed in 705, possibly fighting Cimmerians in Tabal. Mita himself perished around 695, his kingdom overrun by Cimmerians.

Aftermath & Legacy

The absorption into the Assyrian empire ended the political independence of the Neo-Hittite states. However, the Assyrianization process, despite deportations and boundary changes, had limited long-term cultural impact. Many regions retained their identity. States like Hilakku regained independence after Sargon's death, and Malatya under Mugallu resisted Esarhaddon. Adanawa under Azatiwata saw a brief restoration of the local dynasty. The Hittite name ('Hatti') continued as a geographical term for the region, and elements of Hittite artistic and epigraphic tradition persisted, mingling with Aramaean and Assyrian influences. The legacy of the Late Bronze Age empire, transmitted through kingdoms like Carchemish, endured in various forms for centuries after its fall. The question of whether Suppiluliuma II, the last king of Hattusa, found refuge and continued his dynasty within one of these emerging Neo-Hittite states remains an intriguing, unanswered puzzle of archaeology.